Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

The outward expansion of urban growth across the administrative borders began in the 1960’s in most European cities. Sub urbanisation has strengthened the functional relations between central cities and their suburban hinterlands. However the administrative borders and/or arrangements often do not ease the co-operation, but in the contrary slow it down or encourage competition and the realisation of unsustainable development trends.

Cities are often perceived as areas that are tightly defined by their administrative boundaries, rather than being identified as part of a wider city-region with multidimensional links with their hinterland and particularly with the surrounding rural areas. This perception is reflected in the way cities are managed. Potential reciprocal benefits do not always materialize due to political and administrative obstacles and the fragmentation of competencies.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Air pollution is not limited to political boundaries. Polluters may not always be the recipients of their own pollution and similary, some non-polluting areas may suffer from their neighbours.

3. Discussion

The responsibility of controlling certain types pollution in many European countries is given to the local municipalities. Often, the air quality problem is not confined to within their borders. Major road networks connect cities and regions within a country or between countries producing corridors of poor air quality. Major industrial areas send their emissions high into the atmosphere which can travel very long distances, eg. pollution from the UK and central Europe used to fall as acid rain in Scandinavia.

Just as international organisations are set up to help control cross border pollution so local and national organisations can aid in controlling more local pollution.

Co-operation is needed both between neighbouring municipalities and between municipalities of a similar size to enable a common approach to the problem of air pollution. This may take place at different levels and with varying complexity. National organisations are often best at organising conferences and seminars to disseminate information to a large part of a country or for instance to large cities.

At the more local level, a single municipality may wish to organise similar events in its region or sub region.

While monitoring and assessing pollution in a region it is often necessary to share information with neighbours in order to determine the proportion of pollution which is created locally and that which is imported from the neighbouring areas. It is sometimes necessary to organise formal agreements between neighbouring authorities to enable this exchange of information to happen.

It may also be that case that information on transport is collected at a regional level but is required by the cities for air quality assessment. Unless there is a formal agreement or statutory requirement to provide this information to the local authorities or cities, this information is often difficult to obtain.

Co-operation between municipalities in a region should be led from the top. Politicians and senior managers may prevent this at a high level to benefit some other political purpose. In this case it is often necessary for informal co-operation to occur at a lower level between the officers directly involved in the air quality assessment process. This unofficial co-operation may sometimes be more successful than any higher formal agreement.

The advantage of larger co-operative groups of air quality proffessionals means that they can have a louder voice and greater power when communicating with the national government.

Sharing information and experiences can save time and money as lessons can be learnt from each other to avoid making the same mistake twice.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Set up a group of air quality officers in the immediate neighbouring authorities. Agree to share information freely within the group to benefit everyone.

Explore the possibility of setting up a national organisation or regional organisation together with allies to create more ‘clout’

Explore the possibility of purchasing monitoring equipment or specialist modelling software in bulk. This can often make servicing contract cheaper as the servicing contractor can combine several monitoring sites in one trip which will reduce the cost of travelling.

Allow direct communication at a low level between the air quality officers directly involved with the air quality modelling and monitoring process.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Cooperation with other authorities
Improvement of improper area delimitations by co-operative Groups
Study of Transboundary Sources in the Former-Avon Area
Development of AQ Related Planning Guidance in the UK

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Webpage providing examples of co-operative working by a group of Local Authorities in the UK's ex-Avon Area http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/centre/region/cuba/mindex.html

· Webpage providing examples of co-operative working by a group of Local Authorities in Sussex, UK: http://www.sussex-air.net/

· Website co-ordinated by a number of Local Authorities in the north-east of the UK: http://enviweb.sunderland.ac.uk/

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Transboundary pollution in its technical sense covers pollution that moves between the different layers of the atmosphere. A good example here is ozone, where it is a very useful molecule in the stratosphere blocking high energy UV from affecting us in the troposphere but a serious polluter affecting human health at high concentrations in the troposphere. The protective stratospheric ozone layer is being damaged by transboundary movement of CFC’s from the troposphere which then react to convert ozone back to oxygen.

A commoner use of the term transboundary is to describe pollution that travels great distances in the troposphere, carried by strong winds and thermal currents. We will cover examples of both.

The main issues of transboundary pollution affecting cities are ozone episodes and PM₁₀ episodes often involving particulate sulphate.

Ozone episodes occur where large regions are affected by precursors from outside, locally generated precursors and transboundary stratospheric ozone which together with stable conditions and bright sunlight stimulate the production of tropospheric ozone giving rise to a high ozone episode and global warming.

Acid rain is another transboundary pollutant formerly dispersed by high chimneys affecting far distant regions. Sulphuric and sulphurous acids are oxidised to the sulphate form and can be transported as fine particulates across 1000’s of kilometres within the troposphere.

Particulates from forest fires, volcanic eruptions and large industrial sources may also be transported many hundreds of kilometres from their source and add a high background to locally produced pollution. Volcanoes can ‘push’ material out of the troposphere i.e. HCl gas, but particulates are normally too heavy.

The main atmospheric transboundary pollutants affecting cities are global warming molecules such as CO2, hydrocarbons, CFC’s etc. Many cities have grown up where rivers meet or flow into deltas or estuaries and are, therefore, threatened by global warming sea level rises. Cities need to include global warming molecules in their air quality strategies and need to work together to reduce emissions on a regional basis.

Many cities have now joined climate protection alliances and are developing their own climate protection strategies on the basis that everyone doing a little will add up to a great deal.

3. Discussion

Although climate protection issues are often seen as intergovernmental issues, there is a great deal that can be done at local level. Emission inventories already in place for toxic pollutants can be extended to include global warming emissions. Large emissions can then be targeted on a local basis for energy efficiency measures or for substitution with lesser warmers. Cities being close to residents can run education and action campaigns selling the need to reduce excess global warming.

Cities work well in co-operation with other cities and can learn from the way each tackles the problem. A regional approach is also necessary to control and prevent ozone episodes. Co-operation, sharing and the promotion of alternative non fossil fuel generation together with realistic fuel and heat conservation measures are all ways of helping control transboundary pollution.

Although little can be done to tackle pollution from natural sources, such as volcanoes and strong wind, forest fires can be controlled by regional and national action and alliances. Deliberate deforestation must be fought by richer counties by banning timber form non sustainable sources.

The networks of the old Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaign and Integaire are all alliances between cities designed to reduce pollution.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Air Quality and Global warming strategies need to be brought together in dealing with transboundary issues.

· Economic measures are necessary to tackle deforestation and non sustainable logging of timber.

· Cities are closer to citizens and can best target campaigns locally even when part of a national or international initiative.

· Co-operative groups, both within and between cities and countries, can help develop best practice across all areas of concern and by publicising best practise can help spread the message and encourage more cities to take part.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Webpage providing examples of co-operative working by a group of Local Authorities in the UK's ex-Avon Area: http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/centre/region/cuba/mindex.html

· Webpage providing examples of co-operative working by a group of Local Authorities in Sussex, UK: http://www.sussex-air.net/

· Website co-ordinated by a number of Local Authorities in the north-east of the UK: http://enviweb.sunderland.ac.uk/

· Baseline scenario and integrating assessment modelling: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/activities/basescenario.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Governments are more and more concerned to provide clean air for all and the improvement of air quality clearly is a cooperative process, requiring concerted action of all stakeholders.

A wide range of techniques can be used to facilitate public participation throughout the decision-making or development planning process. As a means to involve the citizens and other stakeholders in air quality management, some countries have established coordination points such as regional and/or local air pollution control districts.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The majority of urban air quality monitoring in European Cities is carried out by local, regional or/and national government. In some cases other organisations supplement this by taking part in their own studies or in conjunction with local authorities. These organisations range from universities/institutes down to community groups and schools using the data from air quality monitoring and using it in a wide variety of applications, such as health studies, development planning, transport planning, environmental impact assessments, etc. Most of the studies have been carried out by experts in their particular field, and often the complex and technical monitoring data they produce is not accessible directly to the public. The new challenge for those involved in air quality management is to make this data available and understandable by the general public, so that it may form the basis of correct decisions which benefit air quality.

3. Discussion

The question of how to disseminate air quality information to the public is currently being carried out or considered in almost all member states.

• How to inform the public about air quality?
• It is important to define who, what, when, how, and why the information is to be used:
• Who needs to be involved?
• Media (press, radio, television), central and local organisations, government as well as non-government administration and other information sources.
• What is the information being used for?
• Experts for air quality improvements?
• Current air pollution state?
• Report on air quality and contribution of individual sources and pollution during recent period, e.g., last year?
• Plan for smog and control systems?
• When is the data needed?
• Regular information about activities in the region and about current air quality state. Immediately at emergency situation.
• Irregularly - in case of need and possibility.
• How will the data be issued?
• By the spoken word: in radio, telephone information line, Fax, e-mail, picture information - TV, during weather forecast, Internet services.
• Printed information - newspapers, advertisements, bill/boards, annual reports.
• By signs: sirens and other acoustic signals.
• Where will the data be available?
• Public places: road borders (VMS), parking lots, enterprises, workplaces, schools, hospitals, airports, railway and bus station halls, sport grounds, department stores, Cultural facilities, squares etc.
• What are the objectives!
• Information about current air pollution, specific health problems, raising environmental awareness among population, mobilising general public for taking actions for air quality improvement etc?

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Many organisations monitor air quality. Data obtained from this monitoring is available in various forms, and with varying degrees of accessibility. Those involved in air quality management should utilise this data and package it so that it becomes information on which organisations, communities and individuals can make decisions regarding their actions. National strategies and European Directives are aiding the provision of air quality information by placing mandatory minimum requirements on types and amounts of information issued by governments of member states, and local authorities.

There is a need for increased resources to instigate and research the effectiveness of air quality information strategies. In particular small local authorities cannot achieve the demands of rapid information dissemination, and realised that national governments must carry out this aspect of air quality management.

Perceptions of air pollution in the minds of the public, commercial and trade organisations and local politicians and in the writings of the local press are a major obstacle to overcome. Methods of changing perceptions can include:

• Establishing a working relationship with the media so that they are aware of air quality management issues, not simply of air pollution episodes.
• Examining which organisation should provide air quality information, as the public are in general more likely to trust health processionals than local or national government "experts".
• Promoting involvement in air quality initiatives so that it is considered as a positive attribute when trying to attract new investment to the city/town.

Air quality information is the important first step in any public awareness and education campaigns. The next stage for the local authority is to involve communities in examining why air pollution exists and crucially what is being done to relieve it.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· http://www.umwelt.sachsen.de/lfug

· Member States and air quality contacts: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/links.htm

· Targeted Summary of the European Sustainable Cities Report for Local Authorities: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/urban/locsm-en.htm#domaines

· Commission frequently asked questions on Air quality: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/faq.htm

· Commission Fact sheets on air quality: http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s15004.htm

· http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28031a.htm

· EU Directives : EU Ambient Air web

· page :http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm

· (UK Ambient Air web page) : http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/index.php

· California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment web page: http://www.oehha.org/public_info.html

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The extent to which consultation and participation takes place in cities across Europe varies considerably. The variation occurs across a number of different axes:

· From information provision to full-blown participation

· Whether issues are consulted on due to statutory responsibilities or as good practice

· From consultation with other Council departments, NGOs and the general public

· The range of issues; from planning and transportation to environmental

· The degree to which consultation is formalised through strategies or groupings

These issues will be discussed below.

What is apparent is that few councils have a great understanding of how the public perceive their consultation\participation methods. There is a pattern that the general public do not appear to want to attend regular, bureaucratic meetings and are rarely prepared to do so, but they often feel under-consulted with regard to big developments. Participation rates quoted by councils ranged from 0.2% to 35% (the latter roughly equivalent to the rate for participation in local elections).

3. Discussion

The degree to which councils undertake consultation and participation can range from provision of information regarding policies or action already undertaken or about to be undertaken, through consultation on a selection of pre-determined options, right up to visioning exercises where the public get to decide on the aims of underlying policy itself rather than just the implementation.

The extent to which consultation goes on is often determined by two factors. Whether consultation is a statutory requirement (as is often the case in land-use planning instances) or if the activities are potentially controversial (as is often the case with any policies or actions restricting the use of cars). Although in many cases the public does not hold a role in the final decision, local politicians were, in many cases, unlikely to go against very strong public views where these had been expressed through formal council procedures.

The range of consultees extends from other council departments (although in some cases problems occur due to lack of consultation within departments!), to other councils, other layers of governance (e.g. regional or national), government agencies, NGOs and organisations representing certain members of the general public, and finally individual members of the public. In many cases consultation with other departments and councils occurs within general working practices by way of joint committees or regular meetings (this has particularly developed in the UK in relation to the Local Air Quality Management Process). Where communication with regional and national occurs, this is often much less interactive. In terms of consultation with the public, the first approach is often through communication with NGOs and other bodies such as residents associations. This often finds ‘activists’ in the community, those people who have strong opinions on matters and are consequently part of groups. Finding the opinion of the normal, everyday, uncommitted person is a far more complex task. There are various ways to approach this including extensive surveys, the creation of public panels (this is discussed below) and the creation of public exhibitions to both inform people and give them an opportunity to submit their opinion.

Land-use planning has the best general record for consultation procedures. This stems from the direct localised effect of many planning applications on neighbourhoods. In many countries consultation over land-use, at both the level of an individual application and at a more strategic level is usually compulsory (although in the UK the government is currently trying to limit requirements for consultation on certain types of projects). Public consultation becomes increasingly less frequent for transport and environmental issues. Where transport schemes could have a large effect on specific neighbourhoods, some form of consultation tends to occur but there is rarely the opportunity for the public to do more than prioritise options (the final choice of which is often pre-determined for other reasons). With environmental matters, consultation is even less frequent, often because issues become scientific or technical fact and therefore are suitable for dissemination for transparency and information purposes, but there is very little room for discussion. General environmental themes are often approached through Local Agenda 21 programmes, and actions to improve environmental conditions put forward as action plans tend to involve issues where there is no need for general consultation (such as changing licensing conditions on industrial processes) or cross-over in to the land-use and transport planning spheres.

The most prominent example of good practice found amongst sample cities is the development of consultation panels consisting of a broad (and representative range) members of the public. These come by a range of titles (Citizen’s Panel in Bristol, People’s Panel in Birmingham, Consulta in Venice) but amount to much the same thing, a group of members of the public who commit themselves to being consulted on a wide range of topics. This avoids the issues of the general public feeling “over-consulted” (something that seems to occur often, especially combined with a parallel feeling that their views aren’t acted upon). It also avoids the tendency for consultees to only express views on matters that they have specific interests in.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Examples of consultation initiatives carried out by UK local authorities: http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/initiatives.html

· http://www.klimabuendnis.org/start.htm

· Member States and air quality contacts: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/links.htm

Further readings:

· IEMA, 2002, "Perspectives: Guidelines on participation in environmental decision-making"

· Web links: (UK Environment Agency): http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/aboutus/512398/830672/831980/832074/?lang=_e

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

An essential element of any Local Agenda 21 process is the consultation and involvement of the wider community and general public. Any Local Agenda 21 Strategy should be a joint effort between the different sectors in society and local residents. The involvement of the public is of key importance in this process as it creates a sense of responsibility amongst the citizens for improving their local environment and it helps the local authority to advocate the implementation of actions for achieving the goals of sustainability.

All over Europe, existing community development techniques are being adapted for Local Agenda 21 and new ones are being tried. There are no fixed ways of involving the wider community but two main strands have been identified as essential in the process. First of all ‘Awareness raising and education tools’ and second of all, ‘Consultation and participation tools’.

3. Discussion

Awareness Raising and Education

Environmental Education is a key component of the local agenda process because if the local people are to be part in local sustainable development actions, they need to understand the issues and why actions are needed. Public awareness raising campaigns about the issues are one way of approaching this. Other ideas include: competitions, special offers to buy for example less polluting cars and using local newspapers and radio to cover relevant topics. But another obvious area of activity is using schools and other educational establishments to get the sustainability message across. Schools are seen as a driving force to educate and involve other sectors of the community, and in particular children, in awareness raising.

Consult and involve the wider community and the general public

#As mechanisms to consult and involve the citizens and other stakeholders, we can find:

· Visioning Conferences to encourage participants to imagine what sort of community they would like to live in;

· Focus groups; and

· Citizen’s juries, which bring together local people to deliberate on a particular local topic and come up with options to suggest the way forward.

But one of the key organisational elements of the public participation process within Local Agenda 21 is the Local Agenda 21 Forum, which brings together representatives of the stakeholder groups to give opinions on certain issues and steer the public participation process.

There are at least three different approaches for structuring participation in the development of Local Agenda 21 process: a) the “priority problem” approach; b) the sectoral or municipal services approach; and c) the stakeholder or thematic approach.

The most commonly used means of structuring public involvement in Local Agenda 21 is to involve stakeholders in determining Priority Urban Environmental Problems and then structure participation around key problem areas.

The process is as follows:

· Background information on the city’s urban environment is prepared (e.g. environmental data and a "State of the Environment" report);

· A stakeholder workshop is held to discuss the background information and prioritise urban environmental problems;

· Stakeholder working groups are created around the 2 to 6 highest priority problems;

· The working groups identify and prioritise options for solving the problems; and

· A panel gathering representatives from each working group as well as experts, develops an integrated strategy and individual action plans for each priority problem.

The Priority Problem approach requires:

· A consensus on which problems are the most important; a consensus within each problem area as to priority options; and the participation of relevant stakeholders, especially decision-makers.

· Its advantages are that it focuses the LA21 process on addressing the most important issues and promotes an integrated approach to strategy development. Its disadvantages are that real-life problems may be different from identified priorities if the process takes too long and it might be difficult to achieve consensus on priority problems and options.

The Sectoral or Municipal Service Approach is based on the environmental dimensions of a city’s existing sectors or municipal services. The process is as follows:

· Issues are analysed sector-by-sector or service-by-service, either during a stakeholder workshop or by experts;

· Stakeholder working groups are established for each key sector or municipal service;

· Working groups prioritise issues, identify options and prioritise options for each sector or service; and

· An integrated working group develops an inter-sectoral or cross-service strategy and sector- or service-specific action plans.

The sector- or service- specific approach requires the active participation of key sectoral actors (e.g. industries and neighbourhoods affected by industrial pollution) or key services (e.g. the water and sanitation company directors as well as representatives of their industrial, commercial and residential customers) and a willingness to evaluate real problems in each sector or service. The advantages of this approach are that it focuses on operational problems in each sector or service and that it results in practical, institution-specific recommendations. The disadvantages are that it may not identify and address the most important environmental issues in a city and it tends to reinforce the existing sectoral structure or service delivery system.

In the Stakeholder or Thematic Approach, public participation is organised around groups of key stakeholders or pre-identified urban themes.

The process involves:

· The identification of relevant stakeholders or themes;

· The establishment of stakeholder or thematic working groups;

· The optional preparation of background environmental documents (e.g. environmental data and a “State of the Environment” report to be used by the working groups);

· The identification and prioritisation of stakeholder- or theme-specific strategies and action plans; and

· Integration of working group outputs into a city-wide action program by a stakeholder workshop or a group of experts.

This approach requires the active involvement of all key stakeholders and/or consensus on central themes. The advantages are that it is easy to establish and understand, and that it can address cross-sectoral and inter-jurisdictional problems. The disadvantages are that: a) the resulting strategies and action plans may not address a city’s most important environmental problems; b) the recommendations may be too general to guide action at the level of individual institutions; and c) separating stakeholders may create an "us against them" mentality that could lead to divisiveness.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· The Stakeholder Groups participating in a LA21 Forum should bear in mind, from the beginning, the long-term perspective of the entire planning and development processes of a Local Agenda 21. Involving groups with various viewpoints and vested interests often means that building consensus takes some time. However, over the long term, such a “bottom-up” approach has better results (as it involves the commitment of many more people as compared to “top down” process models) and also prepares the ground for the visioning process and development of local action plans.

· As outlined above, there are two basic types of public participation process tools: “Community consultation tools” and “Awareness raising tools”.

o “Community consultation tools” are methods for involving as many actors as possible in the planning process (such as: regular interviews and phone surveys; questionnaires; involvement of schools, universities and colleges; open public meetings). Their use will depend mainly on the particular circumstances of each municipality and the available personnel and financial resources.

o “Awareness raising tools” are not only useful for engaging citizens at the start of a public participation process, but also are very important to continue to involve the public and keep them informed. Awareness raising tools include: environmental education (educational campaigns, information buses and other public environmental education programmes); environmental calendars giving advice and year-round tips for more environmentally conscious lifestyles; recruiting active participants and providing opportunities for further training as facilitators; actively involving local people e.g. by publishing a newsletter. Furthermore, the use of local and regional media should be fostered as much as possible to make the process as widespread as possible. Each municipality has locally distinctive special assets in the local culture, which can be used to support public participation, like for instance special art exhibitions. Social and cultural assets should be integrated and used as much as possible within the process. It is by fostering those particular assets that the identification of the citizens with their environment is increased, which is one of the goals of a sustainable community.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Examples of consultation initiatives carried out by UK local authorities http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/initiatives.html

· http://www.le-agenda.de/

· AGENDA 21 - THE FIRST 5 YEARS: Implementation of Agenda 21 in the European Community: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/agend21/implem.htm

· Member States and air quality contacts: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/links.htm

· http://www.sustainable-cities.org/docroot/sustainablecities/library.html

· Italian A21 Network: http://www.a21italy.net/

· Italian Department for Public Administration Education: http://ambiente.formez.it/agenda_21_locale.html

· Sustainable Cities Information System: http://www.sustainable-cities.org/home.html

· Baltic 21: http://www.baltic21.org/

· Network of Mediterranean coastal cities: http://www.medcities.org/

· Barents Local Agenda 21 Network: http://barents-la21.net/

· United Nation Sustainable Development: http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

One of the main factors that controls the ability of a municipal authority to implement successful measures aimed at improving air quality for their citizens is the amount of resources available to do it. Although not all measures need be heavily resourced financially to be effective the political will for dealing with Air Quality can itself be treated as a resource.

Air quality management covers a very broad range of activities which can be seen as covering a number of different types of action: personnel dependent to equipment dependent; analysis and assessment to implementation of measures; ‘soft’ measures to ‘hard’ measures.

There is, therefore, a very wide range of resources which are desirable for Air Quality Management and they will vary depending on what aspects are being carried out. The key resource which is essential for any successful Air Quality Management programme can be considered to be knowledge. Ultimately the level of available financial resources for Air Quality Management within a municipality is reliant on the support for it. Financial resources are probably the hardest to acquire due to the inevitable competition for them.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Most cities do not have a dedicated income stream to provide funds to monitor air pollution in their cities. Ideally a pollution tax imposed on major polluters would provide an income stream to develop and maintain monitoring networks and to maintain the dedicated teams of skilled personnel to manage and carry out the process. In the absence of such funding it is necessary to convince local people and politicians to make core funding available and to support bids for partnership working with whoever is prepared to partner the authority. The attached example from Bristol gives methods we have used successfully.

3. Discussion

Government Sources

The individual governments within the EU have been given the task of setting up national networks for air pollution to comply with the Framework and subsequent daughter directives. Approaches can be made to government for joint training, provision of equipment and on site operation of their equipment. Everyone is looking to trim budgets and this approach can work where government agencies are prepared to work with cities.

Government Contracts

Cities should not be prevented from bidding to take part in government monitoring activities. Being ‘on the spot’ the cities can provide local eyes and ears for monitoring exercises run on the governments behalf by consultancies or other agencies. Joint City / Government partnerships are to be promoted as a forward step.

Local Government Contracts

Neighbouring local authorities can club together to jointly fund monitoring campaigns across their region and can appoint the skilled resources jointly that cannot be justified by individual authorities. Savings can be made by joint purchases attracting discounts and similarly joint servicing contracts again attracting savings and a single regional standard.

Private Contracts

The same local site operator service can also offered to private concerns that are required to monitor or model in terms of their planning consents. This may or may not include the provision and or operation of the monitoring equipment. There may be a slight conflict of interest here depending whether this is within or outside the city boundary and local rules may apply.

Development Agreements

Where planning is not appropriate or as a contingency to pay for mitigation measures it may be possible to enter agreements with the developer on major plans to cover monitoring and mitigation measures over 5 to 10 years into the future. Large sums are usually involved with mitigation being triggered by monitoring paid for by the developer.

European Projects

Although in general only items triggered by the project can be charged there is usually a management fee or overhead that helps contribute to general running costs. This element usually is settled at the outset of the project and may be in the range of 5 to 15%. Some external training projects pay almost the full cost of providing trainers including their hourly rate.

Funding can however tie in more closely with locally needed projects so that external funding pays a high proportion of your project costs.

Commercial Sponsorship

In a few limited cases commercial sponsorship may be sought for particular items of equipment. This is particularly appropriate where you have a major supplier in your city where you are willing to ‘showcase’ the equipment supplied. In some cases ‘associations’ of polluters may be prepared to sponsor or provide equipment or resources.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Recommendations

· Look for all possible funding sources. Sources can be difficult to acquire but once acquired may last for a number of years without too much additional effort.

· It can take several years for new sources to come on stream so you must look and plan ahead. Occasionally funding is only paid out at the end of a project and not when expenditure is actually being made.

· Think originally, never mind it has not been done before!

Conclusion

Look for and use whatever funding sources come your way provided they aid the work you do rather than hinder it.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Webpage providing examples of co-operative working by a group of Local Authorities in Sussex, UK http://www.sussex-air.net/

· Environmental economics studies made for the economic unit of Environment DG: Commission published studies on economics: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/enveco/studies2.htm#air

http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/enveco/studies2.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Ring-fencing is simply the principle by which revenue collected through actions in one area of activity can only be spent by authorities on related actions. Thus any fiscal revenue derived from taxation on transport, for example, should be kept in a separate pot to that from other revenue, and only be used to fund transport related activities.

The concept of ring-fencing is generally held to be a very sound one, as long as a reasonably broad view is taken over the breadth of the ring. Views also sometimes differ depending on the order in which the ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ are applied. Are financial levies being put in place to finance other transport plans, or are the other plans merely a sweetener to make the levies more acceptable. Hopefully neither of these is the case and both play a role in the overall holistic integrated transport plan.

In general the principle encourages a strong view of economic sustainability with balances being made between revenue and spending within related areas of activity. There are, however, limits on how universally within local authority budgets ring-fencing should be employed as it could possibly restrict financing of areas of action which do not have a suitable, related, revenue stream. One other possible danger of this system is that public transport options may become dependent on revenue from car-drivers (or other non-sustainable transport methods).

3. Discussion

There are a number of justifications for ring-fencing to be employed. Firstly, in modern ‘free’ markets it is often claimed that taxpayers frequently object to paying taxes for the public good, but instead demand that they see some direct return for their money. In the UK this has been a frequently raised issue with regard to the comparatively high vehicle license tax and poor state of public highways. However, this argument is a very narrow view of how, ideally, ring-fencing should work. When viewed from the wider ‘polluter pays’ perspective, the car driver should not expect his road tax to be spent solely on improving conditions for him. The costs should be shared much more widely to compensate for the wider effects of his (and others) transport choice. These include contributing towards the costs of road accidents, helping cover the costs of people who suffer ill-health through pollution or stress related to noise, and building safe routes for pedestrians and cyclists away from roads. It can even be argued that car drivers should directly subsidise certain bus routes that are not financially viable due to under-use.

The highest profile use of ring fencing is where fiscal measures are used as a direct disincentive for people to drive (as in cases such as the congestion charge, the fuel-duty escalator, or parking place charges). In these cases it is necessary to provide a ‘carrot’ in addition to the ‘stick’ of financial penalties. For example, where access to a city centre is restricted using congestion/road-user charging, this is only justifiable if there are adequate good-quality public transport options available. Although a charge itself will bring about some possible improvement in bus operation due to less congested roads, if the revenue obtained from those people still opting to drive is used to further improve the public transport options than a much greater modal shift can be achieved.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· The concept of ring-fencing is generally held to be a very sound one, as long as a reasonably broad view is taken over the breadth of the ring. Views also sometimes differ depending on the order in which the ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ are applied. Are financial levies being put in place to finance other transport plans, or are the other plans merely a sweetener to make the levies more acceptable. Hopefully neither of these is the case and both play a role in the overall holistic integrated transport plan.

· In general the principle encourages a strong view of economic sustainability with balances being made between revenue and spending within related areas of activity. There are, however, limits on how universally within local authority budgets ring-fencing should be employed as it could possibly restrict financing of areas of action which do not have a suitable, related, revenue stream. One other possible danger of this system is that public transport options may become dependent on revenue from car-drivers (or other non-sustainable transport methods).

5. Examples / Further Reading

Road-user Charging (UK)

Workplace Transport Levy (UK)

Congestion Charging (London, UK)

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Example of proposed congestion charge in Edinburgh: http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/CETM/index.html?/NTI/FAQ.html

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

As sustainable development is about simultaneous pursuit of economic competitiveness, social cohesion and environmental sustainability, it can only be achieved through an integrated approach to policy development in a way that different policy sectors are harmonised and follow a common goal.

A typical problem caused by the lack of collaboration between cities concerns land use, mobility and air quality planning. In order to reach significant improvements in terms of spatial quality, freedom to move and air quality, deep-seated co-operation among the departments/persons in charge of the different sectors is required.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

At all stages, planning and development decisions have a crucial role in providing a choice of transport modes and managing travel demand. Planning can open up or reduce opportunities to use viable alternatives to the private car, to lessen the need to travel and shorten trips. Land use planning practice should result in urban development and change that moderate car reliance so that other measures to reduce car use and the environmental impact of transport will be effective and affordable. Planning and development must consider all relevant transport modes. In particular, improving access by walking, cycling and public transport must receive equivalent, if not greater, consideration than private car access. The aim of integrating land use and transport is to ensure that urban structures, building forms, land use locations, development designs, subdivision and street layouts achieve the following planning objectives:

· Improving access to housing, jobs and services by walking, cycling and public transport;

· Increasing the choice of available transport and reducing dependence on cars;

· Reducing travel demand including the number of trips generated by development and the distances travelled, especially by car;

· Supporting the efficient and viable operation of public transport services and

· Providing for the efficient movement of freight.

3. Discussion

While transportation is essential to make urban areas function, it has also contributed to an array of problems. Particularly in car-dependent cities, traffic jams have translated into loss of productivity as well as into the deterioration of air quality. Transportation planning which was initially aimed to address the increasing mobility of goods and people through investments in transportation infrastructure, i.e., expansion of the network of roads and highways, now needs to identify new solutions and adapt to the changed conditions. With growing awareness of environmental concerns (i.e., congestion and urban air pollution), planners and policymakers are seeking innovative solutions to reverse this trend. A key concern is to develop policies and programs aimed to reduce vehicle miles travelled and to develop alternative technologies such as green vehicles, light rail transit, and cleaner fuels. Transportation planners are also beginning to understand the impact of land use decisions and programs on transportation and likewise on air quality. A growing number of communities are attempting to fundamentally change the planning process so that land use and transportation are more closely linked, bringing the concepts of mobility and liveable communities into a single focus. From efforts to promote smart growth initiatives, redevelop old shopping malls into mixed-use walkable town centres, encourage in-fill residential development, and create pedestrian- and transit-friendly streets, communities of all sizes are beginning to consider transportation and land use as part of an interrelated system in which mobility and liveability are in proper balance. Thinking more strategically about land use-transportation relationships can lead to reduced vehicle miles of travel; improvements in air quality; increased levels of walking, bicycling and transit use; economic and community revitalisation; and the preservation of neighbourhood character and a more visually appealing landscape. Transportation’s role in creating liveable communities requires balancing mobility, the movement between places, and accessibility, the ease with which desired activities can be reached from any particular location. The density, diversity, and design of an urban area influence the travel mode choices of people and consequently this affects the air quality. Densely populated urban centres provide greater access to activities without increasing the movement of goods and services. Accessibility is an index of density. It is a factor that influences travel choice. Likewise an increasing tendency is for mixed-use neighbourhoods to encourage more live/work options and bring jobs and services closer to people. These pedestrian-friendly neighbourhoods, with retail and recreational activities, residential and employment growth occurring within centres and corridors, are accessible by walking or biking and other alternative modes, consequently decreasing automobile use. The third dimension, “design”, allows planners to design neighbourhoods that promote alternative means of conveyance, like walking and cycling by designing grid street patterns, planting street trees, constructing rear alley parking, and other features. Dispersed urban development differs in its low-density residential populations. New transportation road and highway networks allow for decentralised neighbourhoods and the controversial automobile-dependent, suburban sprawl. Developers are starting to appreciate the relationship between land use and travel patterns and conversely that transportation investments influence land use and development patterns. Planners see the need for less emphasis on new roads and more on transportation and compact development options: public transit, including buses and light rail; revitalised neighbourhoods with existing access to transit; and new development designed for pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit users.

Integrating land use, mobility and air quality are widely discussed in other Traffic issues; in particular:

• Traffic Measures: Improvement of Travel Demand
• Traffic Measures: Better Traffic Management
• Traffic Measures: Improved Network Service Infrastructures
• Traffic Measures: Cleaner Vehicles

Moreover the following topics of Land Use and Planning issues and their examples concern integrating land use themes:

• Existing Land Use Planning Policies including LU & TR relationsips
• Relocation of business activities
• Other Planning Activities improving Air Quality

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

To improve the integration between land use, mobility and air quality it is necessary that local communities adopt a sustainable development strategy, by creating inter-disciplinary working groups in local planning (experts coming from land use planning, transport planning and the environment office) and by promoting public participation to engage the wide spectrum of stakeholders in the decision making process. Participation must grow from the needs and aspirations of a community, and must be planned and designed with the full participation of all stakeholders. Public consultations and meetings serve as effective mechanisms to open communication lines for citizens to redress their concerns about projects. In addition to conventional models of public participation, community involvement can also mean capturing new opportunities for public-private partnerships particularly as businesses recognise the need to address transportation needs in a comprehensive manner. The basic land use strategies to reduce the vehicle miles travelled can be: to concentrate densities of neighbourhoods and cities; to boost mixed land use through urban structure and land use policies, zoning ordinances; to preserve ecological and historically sensitive sites; to integrate transport modes, to provide more efficient movement for passengers or goods; to invest in efficient public transport services and in less polluting and low impact alternative transportation systems, such as clean fuels.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Role of air quality adviser

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Examples on Research and Development Projects:

· DANTE (Designs to avoid the need to travel in Europe): http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/extra/danteia.html

· LEDA (Legal/regulatory measures to influence the use of the transport system): http://www.cordis.lu/transport/src/leda.htm

· LURA (Land Use and Transportation: Policies for the City of Tomorrow): http://www.ess.co.at/LUTR/

· OPTIMA (Optimisation of Policies for Transport Integration in Metropolitan Areas): http://www.its.leeds.ac.uk/projects/optima/

· SESAME (Derivation of the relationship between land use, behaviour patterns and travel demand for political and investment decisions): http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/extra/sesameia.html

· SPECTRA (Sustainability, Development and Spatial Planning): http://www.uwe.ac.uk/fbe/spectra/start.htm

· TRANSLAND (Integration of transport and land-use planning): http://www.inro.tno.nl/transland/

· COST (European Co-operation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research) projects: http://cost.cordis.lu/src/home.cfm (332: Innovative methods of coordination between transport actions and regional and local planning; 342: Parking policy measures and their effects on mobility and the economy

· POLIS (European Cities and Regions Networking for New Transport Solutions)

· ELTIS (The European Local Transport Information Service): http://www.eltis.org/

· The ECMT-OECD Project on Sustainable Urban Travel: http://193.51.65.78/cem/UrbTrav/index.htm

· Bremen Initiative: http://www.bremen-initiative.de/index2.html

Further readings:

· “Environment for Europe” process, Environmental programme for Europe, Urban Transport Patterns and Land Use Planning: http://www.unece.org/env/europe/utlu.htm

· The Sustainable Cities Project: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/urban/home_en.htm

· Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection “A Handbook on Assessing the Land Use & Air Quality Impacts of Alternative Transportation Systems”: http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/pollprev/techservices/Evtec/EvtecPDF's/PA%20Handbook%20FINAL.pdf

· Commission webpage on land use: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/land_use/index_en.htm

· Information on Land-use planning issues and how they relate to AQM in the UK http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/planning.html

· Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2004/com2004_0060en01.pdf

· Commission webpage on land use: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/land_use/index_en.htm

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Energy is one of the most important factors for the well-being of our society. But the consumption of non-renewable fuels, coal, oil derivatives and natural gas, diminishes reserves that took millions of years to form. The combustion products worsen local air quality and greenhouse gas emissions contribute to global climate change.

Impacts from using energy include: burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, associated with global climate change; mining coal and extracting oil can damage ecosystems and water supplies; nuclear power generates waste disposal problems; hydroelectric power can damage ecosystems along waterways; burning biomass (wood) still emits some pollutants, particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx can have a powerful effect on the environment: aids formation of ground level ozone; contributes to acid rain and respiratory problems; reacts with other particles to form toxic products, some of which might cause biological mutations; blocks transmission of light, reducing visibility; increases nitrogen loading in water, leading to algae growth.

3. Discussion

Energy is central to our economies, our lifestyles, and our health. It powers industrial production, transportation, and increasingly, agricultural production. It provides services such as heating, refrigeration, and lighting, which raise the quality of life and provide tangible health benefits such as unspoiled food and relief from the stresses of heat or cold. Energy production and consumption have serious negative impacts on our local, regional and global environment. For example, almost all the CO2 emissions we generate are attributable to the energy sector, and this is having a serious impact on the planet’s climate. Using energy more efficiently offers the best way to reduce these environmental problems. Purchasing renewable energy also reduces pollution.

Global energy use has climbed steadily over the years as industrial economies have expanded; this rapid rise is expected to continue over the next several decades. It has been estimated a 20-fold growth over the past century and is expected to increase by 2% annually until 2020. This means a doubling of energy consumption by 2035 relative to 1998 and a tripling by 2055.

The greatest increase is from transport, where 95% of energy comes from petrol. Energy consumption in this sector is expected to increase at a rate of 1.5% a year in developed countries and 3.6% in developing countries, reflecting rapid economic expansion, high population growth, and the substitution of fossil fuels for traditional biomass fuels.

The most direct impact of higher fossil fuel use could be an increase in air pollution levels, especially in urban areas. Greater coal use and a rapidly expanding fleet of cars and trucks worldwide are the two most serious threats to air quality as fossil fuel consumption rises. Energy and Transport policies are at the centre of environment concerns, jointly contributing with more than 90% to Europe’s CO2 emissions balance and causing other negative environmental impacts. Monitoring energy and transport markets reveals that, while some progress is being made, major problems remain and some developments give rise to major concerns. The more critical trends can be envisaged in Europe’s increasing energy import dependency and its implications for energy security, the return of growth in European fossil fuel consumption and the corresponding increase in CO2 emissions and finally the continuous growth of road and aviation transport demand, which is creating traffic congestion of a size and a frequency that will further escalate its current negative impacts on European industry’s competitiveness.

Looking beyond immediate impacts on air quality, rising fossil fuel use will produce higher greenhouse gas emissions, increasing the threat of global warming. Without a major global effort to curtail carbon dioxide emissions, they are expected to double from pre-industrial levels before 2100. In response, the Earth's average surface temperature is expected to warm by 1.0° C to 3.5° C over the coming century a more rapid change in climate than has occurred for the last 10,000 years. Although health impacts are uncertain, most are likely to be negative, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Several Land Use issues deal with the relationship between energy use and air quality; in particular:

• Land Use Measures: Residential Emissions reduction

• Land Use Measures: Industrial emissions reduction

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Local Authorities can give an important contribution to save energy and prevent its negative impacts on air quality, by promoting Energy Plans and Programmes on their territories. City Energy Plans are based on the analysis of local energy supply and demand trends, in relation to social and economic conditions. Related greenhouse gas emissions are also considered. This analysis can be used to develop scenarios for future energy supply and demand, to help identifying key actions that can change current trends. A series of guidelines can then be prepared, describing ways to encourage the adoption of best available energy techniques and technologies, support the integration of energy sustainability into City Government plans and regulations, inform consumers and retailers about energy efficient products, develop agreements with key energy sector stakeholders, reduce the amount of energy use in residential and public buildings and by the vehicle fleet, promote more sustainable ways of transportation, take initiatives on cogeneration and district heating based on biomass, wind turbines and other forms of renewable energy.

5. Examples / Further Reading

BANS: http://www.ambiente.venezia.it/

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Examples on Research and Development Projects:

· The JOULE III Program (within European Union's Fourth Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development): see http://www.cordis.lu/joule/home.html

· The “managEnergy” Case Studies Data Base (see the web site, http://www.managenergy.net/), an initiative of the European Commission DG Energy and Transport (it helps identifying expertise and success obtained to date through projects and other relevant activities carried out in various regions and localities throughout Europe)

Further readings:

· “Green Paper: Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply”: see http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/en/lpi_lv_en1.html

· Conference on Good Practice in Integration of Environment into Transport Policy (10-11/10/2002): see http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/gpc/

· Integrating Environment and Sustainable Development into energy and transport policies Brussels, 21.3.2001, SEC(2001) 502: see http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/library/integr_report_en.pdf

· Documents on Integration of Environment and sustainable development in Transport and Energy Policies: see http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/energy_transport/en/envir_integr_3_en.html

· Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow. Can Economic Incentives Really Help: see http://ideas.repec.org/p/fth/wobate/308.html

· Guide to the Approximation of European Union Environmental Legislation:http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/guide/part2f.htm

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

It is important to establish the public health principle that clean air is healthy and that polluted air is unhealthy. Following on from this we need to ensure that clean air is provided and maintained for the population especially in residential and leisure areas.

Local plans need to include air pollution aspects and provide barriers and technology to reduce the risk of pollution causing harm.

Where pollution is high, i.e. close to industry or traffic, we need to impose controls to reduce pollution to acceptable limits. (for our purposes, the EU sets minimum standards but national governments may improve on these.) Basically we have two types of land use case studies to consider. The first where a polluting source is introduced, e.g. a chemical factory. The second where a pollution sensitive use is introduced, i.e. a nursery school. In each case, depending on the prevailing pollution environment, the use might be acceptable, unacceptable or acceptable providing certain conditions are met.

AQ professionals need to establish firm protocols with their land use planning colleagues for the first two cases and establish a consultative decision making process to agree firm conditions for the third.

These protocols should affect new economic activity as well as other developments such as houses, airports etc.

3. Discussion

Without firm guidance it is not easy to see what effect minor development is likely to have on the air we breathe. Air knows neither frontiers nor barriers and flows with the wind and weather as ‘fronts’ of broadly similar composition. For many generations man has relied on wind and tall chimneys to disperse pollution through dilution so that air at ground level remains clean enough and healthy enough to sustain us through everyday life. We now live longer, enjoy more leisure time and understand the respiratory illnesses caused by polluted air from asthma to bronchitis via leukaemia and rhinitis. The importance of clean air has long been recognised in establishing sanatoriums and clinics in clean mountain air.

Local air quality management enables us to set local rules to reduce pollution in industrial areas and in our choked and congested cities whilst at the same time by setting tighter standards safeguarding good air quality in residential and leisure areas. The EU standards set a pollution ceiling through which we should not break. Unfortunately for a number of industrial pollutants these limits have already been exceeded. In these cases no further development can be permitted until the existing emissions have been reduced. In the UK, companies in zones with high pollution (called Air Quality Management Areas) must come forward with annual upgrade plans (controlling emissions due to economic activity) showing how they will reach government objectives by the due dates. These plans must be agreed with the national Environment Agency and are then included in the Local Authority action plan.

Following assessment of the whole of the UK, most problems in Air Quality Management Areas are due to traffic generated particles and nitrogen dioxide. In these cases developments that generate more traffic are discouraged and traffic reducing development encouraged within and adjacent to the management area. Action plans to control and reduce pollution must be put into effect along with development that reduces the need to travel. Upswings in economic activity generally encourage greater car use, but cars are replaced more frequently with higher technological controls creating a cleaner ‘park’. More fuel is consumed increasing greenhouse emissions. Conversely, less fuel is consumed in an older ‘park’ when in an economic downturn giving high polluting emissions.

It is usually fairly simple to agree on a list of developments that would be permitted as having little impact, together with a list with developments with adverse impact. Unfortunately there is a large grey area between where some development might be permitted given certain conditions i.e. of tight emission abatement; or for residential of providing clean air away from sources of pollution and provided pressurised air. This grey list will depend on the local weather, topography and traffic measures and the levels of background concentrations.

We must also consider those land uses that may require very clean air. These include the micro-electronics industry, some types of food production, schools, nurseries and hospitals. In general these should not be established in areas of high pollution without mitigation measures that would guarantee clean air, such as air conditioning with intakes sited to take in clean air e.g. from roof tops or facades away from the pollution source.

Several alternatives or complementary measures based on changes in land use for reducing air pollution are described in the Land Use Measures: Land Use Change section of the database. They deal with residential areas, regeneration, pedestrianised areas, activity relocation, energy efficient buildings, renewable energy applications, district heating and industrial plants.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Recommendations

· Cities could adopt a procedure similar to City Plan in the UK, in which the local plan must contain references to good air quality and establish minimum standards if not already codified in national or EU law. The strategy must also protect good air quality and set up procedures to prevent bad air quality from getting worse. Where objectives are already exceeded it is essential to prepare an action plan of measures that will reduce pollution over the short, medium and longer terms.

· The land use policy must collaborate with pollution control permitting authorities to protect air quality by setting suitable emission rates and ceilings within the operating capacity of the local environment; this effectively prevents increases in economic activity producing ever higher polluting emissions.

· These procedures must be open and transparent and allow public participation in the decision-making processes. These processes promote ‘clean’ economic activity and a reducing cap on total emissions requiring all industrial emitters to reduce pollution over the economic cycle.

Conclusion

· Local plans must recognise the importance of air quality.

· Air quality considerations must be a relevant matter in considering planning applications.

· A joint memorandum of understanding or decision making rules must be agreed with ‘grey’ areas being referred to for more detailed advice.

· The pollution permitting authorities must work together with planning authorities to ensure adequate protection of local air quality.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Bristol works with EA over Avonmouth.

Planners and EQ have memo of understanding to control development.

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Information on Land-use planning issues and how they relate to AQM in the UK: http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/planning.html

· Commission webpage on land use: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/land_use/index_en.htm

· California Air Resources Board, 10th May 2004 "Draft Air Quality and Land Use Handbook: A Community Health Perspective", downloadable from: http://www.arb.ca.gov/ch/aqhandbook.htm

· California Air Resources Board CARB: http://www.arb.ca.gov/ch/aqhandbook.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

An important problem is the lack of harmonized data, tools and practices in order to guide urban planning teams, politicians and managers to the desired direction. Urban planning is managed by experts, usually assigned by politicians, who apply individual practices according to their experience and the local circumstances.

Lack of reliable and detailed enough data is a major problem touching the problem analysis, planning and monitoring phases. The use of many new tools such as models and various evaluation techniques requires high-quality data on inter-linked urban phenomena and flow of interactions. The lack of comparable data also makes benchmarking and the use of other comparative methods and tools very difficult.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Improvement of data availability, tools and practise must be an issue for the European commission to coordinate. To standardize/harmonised the data/tools, the air quality management work can be done much easier and powerful.

3. Discussion

To fulfil the data availability and the tools you must first set up the objectives. The objectives of air quality data form a basis of AQ policy. The definition of the main objectives is as follows:

To monitor/modelling and the compliance with the limit values and national air quality limit value. To monitor/modelling the trends in air quality. To provide adequate information on air quality to the public. To evaluate the effects of the emissions from traffic and energy production (and other sources) on air quality to provide air quality data for evaluating exposure/costs to different pollutants and their effects on health and environment. To provide air quality data to be used in city/land and traffic planning. The quality system should be based on the literal regulations and working instructions and documentation of all procedures and activities. A set of quality objectives for the measurement results and follow up their realization. The quality of the measurements/calculations must be based on regular maintenance and traceable calibration/validation of the equipment/model and participation in intercalibrations/validation when possible.

Issues dedicated to modelling and measurements (section Models for Planning: Land Use and Transport Modelling of the database) give further elements on this topic, in particular about pollution sources, emissions and air quality models, and traffic data monitoring.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Several key points can be followed to aid the often difficult process of improvement of data availability:

• Convince those involved in economic regeneration that working for health and the environment is not a luxury. In the long term there can be no economic prosperity without equitable solutions to air quality management;
• Build on Local Agenda 21 structures;
• Ensure equity and fair representation from communities;
• Utilise publicity which is geared to particular target audiences;
• Involve communities in small scale local air quality projects;
• Meet the community or their representatives face to face and
• Provide accessible data to communities.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Upgrading of new post-war areas in the Netherlands; European Common Indicators

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Cumulative Impact Assessment and Territorial Impact Assessment are part of the impact assessment practises in the EU Member States. Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) is the analysis of all effects on an area from one or more activities as they accumulate over time and space. Territorial Impact Assessment (TIA) can currently best be described as “a tool for assessing the impact of spatial development against spatial policy objectives or prospects for an area”.

3. Discussion

Cumulative effects can result from an accumulation of effects from numerous activities or from a combination of effects from one activity. In either case, cumulative effects can be different in nature (e.g. synergistic), larger in magnitude, greater in significance, more long-lasting, and/or greater in spatial extent than is the case with individual effects. The amount of data required to identify and predict cumulative effects is likely to be much greater than for individual effects, as is the extent and complexity of data manipulation. Increased data requirements mean increased costs (and time). The expected results must be weighed carefully against the resources required. Much uncertainty already exists with the identification and prediction of environmental effects. This is only increased with cumulative effects, particularly as manipulative and synergistic effects are considered. Methods available for environmental impact analysis are not directly applicable to cumulative impact analysis because they usually address only first-order, cause-effect relationships. Thus, methods have to be developed or adapted for use in CIA. Cumulative effects may not be restricted to the area in which the activity is taking place, and indeed may cross political (i.e. district and regional) boundaries. This poses a potential problem in that inter-district co-operation and co-ordination may be required for addressing cumulative effects, but the institutional framework for accomplishing this may not be in place.

The concept of Territorial Impact Assessment (TIA) has been proposed in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP). Whilst the concept itself is not defined, it is suggested in the ESDP that it should be used as an instrument for the spatial assessment of large infrastructure projects and as the basis for integrated spatial development strategies for environmentally sensitive areas. In the ESDP, the concept is clearly related to the assessment of the impact of projects, rather than plans or programmes. As a spatial planning instrument, it is expected that TIA can be applied to any spatial scale. In most other EU member states the concept of TIA is new to planning practice, although in several it is possible to identify major planning studies, which are perhaps comparable in terms of scope and purpose. This may occur, for example, whenever national planning bodies have needed to evaluate possible new airport locations or other major infrastructure proposals. TIA is a tool or procedure for assessing the impact of proposed spatial development against spatial policy objectives or prospects for an area. In principle, TIA includes all aspects of spatial planning whether they are environmental, social, economic or cultural in their impact. Thus a TIA could consider the impact of a proposed policy on, for example, job opportunities, the housing market, the regional economy, the cultural heritage or tourist attractions.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Isolated assessment of the impact of new developments is not always the best way to support the decision process. Therefore the possibilities of more complete but more complex assessments should be considered. The added value should be weighed against the higher costs that may be involved. The methods of Cumulative Impact Assessment and Territorial Impact Assessment, referred to under Further Reading below, may be interesting options for cities.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Commission site on impact assessment: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/urban/impact_assessment.htm

· Communication from the Commission on Impact Assessment: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2002/com2002_0276en01.pdf

· Strategic Environmental assessment: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/sea-studies-and-reports/sea-case-studies.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Air Quality Management (AQM) consists of the three basic components:

· Monitoring. Measuring air pollution and weather at representative locations.

· Mapping. Identifying all the major activities causing harmful air pollution and quantifying the emissions.

· Modelling. Using mathematical modelling tools to combine the monitoring and mapping information in order to compute a complete air pollution (concentration) map.

For any organisation working with AQM, it is extremely important to find a balance between the components, e.g. the choice of modelling tools should be based on the quality and quantity of the mapping and monitoring information. While the monitoring usually requires a substantial investment in technical equipment, the mapping activities are usually the most labour intensive and require cooperation between several departments in a city. A digital map is required. Traffic information must be found. Industrial activities and site descriptions should be collected. Emission information must be registered as well as emission factors converting activity information (such as traffic flow) into emission figures. When the mapping for the present situation has been finalised, modelling should be applied and validated against the measured air quality (AQ) data. At this stage, the modelling tools can be a useful tool for physical planning and for short and long term forecasting as well as for assessment studies. By including alternative measures that could be taken, the environmental impact of "what if" scenarios can be studied and hazardous accidents could be avoided.

3. Discussion

Managing urban air quality presents a huge challenge and one which will only be met if a holistic approach is taken to address all the factors which contribute to air quality, social, economic and environmental issues. Whilst thinking about air quality in isolation may cause many people no more than a small worry or concern, thinking about the causes of air pollution and their relationships to our lives in the city is more likely to lead us to more productive thinking about solutions. One of the tasks for the Environment Administration is to think of the air quality in new building areas and in the cities when new houses/roads are built. Dispersion models are an important tool for physical planning. Both for real time and for forecast. One rather cheap and trustful method is to calculate “what if” scenarios. The use of energy at home, the importance of transport to life in an urban environment, the industry and service activity which powers the city economy, all contribute to local air quality and are all entwined with the general health and well being of the city. Air Quality management must be an integral part of how we think about issues such as transport and health, and not a separate, obscure and optional part of policy and planning. Today many cities in Europe use dispersion calculation programmes to estimates the level of air quality and relate it to the directives.

If the level of the pollution is too high, action must be taken, many of the actions are connected to people’s opinion and perception and the actions can sometimes be difficult to carry out. Perhaps the greatest way to change the public’s perception on air quality, and therefore their actions, are awareness programmes. Such programmes must be carefully presented and must seek the active involvement of a wide variety of players if it is to succeed. Air quality managers should be seeking the public's opinion on: whether they want, or even need the data; what are the best descriptors; how frequently they want the data; why are the episodes happening; and what effects they will have. Awareness and education projects bring along a wide variety of issues and resources needs. Once past the stage of giving out air pollution levels, the next step for the local authority is to involve communities in examining why air pollution exists and, crucially, what is being done to relieve it. The final and most difficult stage is addressing what both the public and industry need to do, and to get these ideas into action.

Air quality Modelling is the main theme of the Modelling issues. Topics on land use, transport, industrial and residential modelling techniques describe the various elements of the modelling chains representing the effects of human activities on the environment and health. Covered aspects are emissions sources, air pollution models, population exposure models, impacts on population health and monuments.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Air quality management systems which incorporate a large element of public involvement will be more likely to have public approval and therefore be more likely to succeed. With this in mind, all those embarking on urban air quality management must seriously consider any reasons for not incorporating some sort of public involvement, and should seek to redress this.

5. Examples / Further Reading

ISHTAR Project : building an advanced models suite for urban sustainable planning

Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models in HEAVEN integrated AQMS system in Rome

Dispersal modelling in physical planning

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

As a result of internal markets and increasing globalisation single government levels are the increasingly unable to deal with planning issues on their own. Increasingly interdependencies among all levels of government and targeted actions at different levels require overall aims, orientation and commitment.

In addition to defining the objectives, the difficulty remains how to translate them into policies and practice, especially at regional and local levels, taking into account diverse local conditions.

Multi-partite contracts could be a potential instrument to improve the co-ordination. But it has to be borne in mind that the tri-partite contracts proposed in the White Paper on European Governance link the EU with the national and the regional or urban level, although in the sustainable urban management context it seems rather essential to strengthen the co-ordination between towns and regions.

Many planning-related practices are considered as obstacles in the way of more sustainable urban development: traditional values still rule among a large majority of planners and decision-makers; lack of objective or consensual environmental criteria; the inflexible structure of plans makes it difficult to up-date them in a flexible way when need arises and uncertainties over the costs and risks associated with the innovation that often accompanies sustainability.

Last Updated

13th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Local authorities are often not adequately consulted over the development of environmental directives that will impact heavily on their roles and functions. Local and regional authorities are represented through the Committee of the Regions in the EU legislative process, however this body has no legislative power and the Commission is not bound to take account of its decision and recommendations.

The EU level came to recognise the importance of the local dimension in the implementation of Community policies. While European legislative instruments allow for a certain degree of flexibility, the growing role of regional and local authorities in the design and above all the execution of Community policies must nevertheless be given fuller recognition.

The idea of tripartite contracts and agreements responds to the need to improve transparency and involvement in European policy development and the need for new, innovative and more flexible approaches to the implementation of European rules and policies. Target-based tripartite contracts and/or agreements should be concluded between the Commission, Member States and regional/local authorities in order to better achieve the implementation of certain EU policies.

3. Discussion

Historical Background

The idea of tripartite contracts was introduced by the Commission in its White Paper on European Governance published in July 2001 as a way of creating more flexibility in the means provided for implementation of European legislation and policies with a strong territorial impact. This White paper puts forward the idea of contractual tools between the Member States, the territorial authorities and the European Community represented by the Commission. These tools are intended to develop the arrangements for the participation of the regions in attaining targets set at European level in cooperation with the national and regional authorities.

The Commission also committed itself to launching, "from 2002 onwards, pilot 'target-based contracts' within one or more areas, as a more flexible means of ensuring implementation of EU policies". Environment was identified as an area for testing this new instrument. The White Paper publication was followed by a DG Environment Conference on “Governance – What’s in it for the Environment” on 3-4 December 2001. This event concluded with a commitment by Commissioner Wallström to try to develop and conclude (a) first pilot tri-partite contract/-s by the end of 2002.

On 11 December 2002, the Commission published its Communication on "A framework for target-based tripartite contracts and agreements between the Community, the States and regional and local authorities". Through this Communication the Commission clarifies the aim and the scope of tripartite contracts and agreements.

Inter-institutional situation

European Parliament adopted a resolution on the Communication from the Commission entitled 'A framework for target-based tripartite contracts and agreements between the Community, the States and regional and local authorities', on 4 December 2003. The European Parliament resolution welcomes the Commission's initiative to engage in testing the approach with tripartite contracts and agreements.

The Committee of the Regions announced its opinion, dated 13 March 2002, on the White Paper on European governance and the Communication on a new framework for cooperation on activities concerning the information and communication policy of the European Union. The Committee of the Regions welcomes the development of tripartite contracts and agreements as an effective instrument for involving regional and local authorities in the implementation of those Community policies, which most directly affect them.

Concrete knowledge about these contractual tools

The contractual tools can be of two kinds:

· Target-based tripartite contracts concluded between the Commission, a Member State and regional and local authorities in direct application of binding secondary Community law (regulations, directives or decisions); or

· Target-based tripartite agreements concluded between the Commission, a Member State and regional and local authorities outside a binding Community framework.

These contractual tools, which are subject to a general obligation of compatibility with the Treaties, must respect the States' constitutional systems and may not under any circumstances constitute a barrier to the sound operation of the single market. They are justified where they provide added value which may take several forms: simpler implementation, political benefits, efficiency gains resulting from the close involvement of regional and local authorities, or speedier performance.

Tri-partite agreements in the environmental field

The environmental field is viewed as one of the primary areas for the development of tripartite contracts or agreements.

In October 2003, the first three pilot project initiatives for tripartite agreements in Birmingham (UK), Lille (France) and Pescara (IT) were granted support from the European Commission. All three pilot projects are concerned with the environment. The Birmingham project is about urban mobility, the Pescara project covers urban mobility and air quality, while the Lille project focuses on the management of urban green spaces. All three envisage input on the part of local or regional, national and Community authorities.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Tripartite contracts/agreements should be used, in specific and complex circumstances, when:

o Traditional instruments are not appropriate or do not achieve the needed output.

o The outputs to the policy objective are dependent to an important extent on the geographical or other characteristics of an area.

o The area(s) is(are) complex. Many elements of a different nature interact to determine the outcome of policy decisions, making ‘simple’ instruments less appropriate. In order to achieve the required policy output, it is important that the different spheres of governance are actively involved.

· Tripartite agreements/contracts would provide for the designated authority to carry out certain projects and policies to realise EU policy objectives. They could be seen as the next fundamental step in the application of the principle of subsidiarity and could bring EU policy closer to the citizen.

· Tripartite agreements and contracts will definitely contribute to the development of the Commission final strategies and directives by providing a working instrument for the final policy. In this way, it can build a template and test out policies in certain fields without applying policy to the whole Union.

These tools will foster cross border cooperation by allowing cities and regions in different Member States to sign up to the agreement.

5. Examples / Further Reading

1. Example provided by the City of Seville

Since 1993, Seville has been taking part in the Tripartite Agreements. All Social Harmony Agreements signed during the 90’s had a positive effect on the economical and social development of Andalusia because they promoted several actions intended for the improvement of the competitive conditions in the economy of Andalusia. Besides, these agreements helped the Regional Government of Andalusia, and have been considered as a reference from the economical and social point of view, not only in Spain, but also in the European Union context. Furthermore, the European Commission considered these experiences as a completely success, due to their ability to face up a new economic scene.

The last Social Harmony Agreement, which was signed in Seville by the regional government of Andalusia, with the Business Confederation of Seville and the Trade Union (CCOO), took place on the 23^rd of May 2001. This Social Harmony Agreement consists of five key elements:

1. The active policies in the field of employment;
2. The improvement of the competitive conditions and internationalisation of the Andalusian Companies;
3. The knowledge society;
4. The economic planning; and
5. improvement of the labour relations.

This agreement includes new issue such as the knowledge society, in which, the environment field has been taken into account, with the idea of the sustainability, as an instrument for the future progress.

These Social Harmony Agreements content a wide range of compromises. All stakeholders involved in these agreements have promoted their dissemination, by the means of informative campaigns, or the creation of websites. Besides, these pacts are supposed to allow a permanent social dialogue that requires several actions to guarantee the efficiency of the achieved agreements. For that reason, there is the need for the creation of institutional working groups and forums, to go ahead with these pacts.

www.juntadedalucia.es is the Internet webpage of the regional government of Andalusia, in which, you can find more available information as regards this field.

2. Sustainability Pacts

Following the idea of tripartite contracts/agreements, introduced by the Commission in its White Paper on Governance, and the commitment made by Commissioner Wallström to test such tripartite contracts or agreements in a number of pilot cases, EUROCITIES and the Stockholm Region jointly coordinated an initiative, which set out to deliver a template for use in potential tri-partite agreements contributing to sustainable urban development. This initiative was realised in partnership with 42 cities and regions, which met four times in 2002 and 2003 together with the DG ENV units responsible respectively for governance and urban issues. The partnership agreed on a template, which was delivered to the Commission included in a final report on the initiative on 28 April 2003.

Three individual initiatives out of the Sustainability Pacts proposal were selected as pilot projects to assess the added value of tripartite agreements in the field of environment: Birmingham - UK, Lille - France, Pescara - Italy.

Further information on this project is available at http://www.eurocities.org/pacts/

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· A framework for target-based tripartite contracts and agreements between the Community, the States and regional and local authorities: COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION

· Communication "Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment”

· White Paper on European Governance published in July 2001

· DG ENV Conference on “Governance – What’s in it for the Environment” on 3-4 December 2001

· European Parliament adopted a resolution on the Communication from the Commission entitled 'A framework for target-based tripartite contracts and agreements between the Community, the States and regional and local authorities' (Provisional)

· Committee of the Regions opinion on the White Paper on European governance and the Communication on a new framework for cooperation on activities concerning the information and communication policy of the European Union.

· Sustainability pacts initiative (including “Towards a tripartite contract” and the “Tripartite template”): http://www.eurocities.org/pacts/

· Multilateral environmental agreements: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/international_issues/agreements_en.htm

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The principle of subsidiarity requires that any action is taken at the most appropriate level of governance. Therefore, whilst major decisions on the implementation of cleaner fuels or new engine technologies are generally taken at the European level (parliament/commission), and general strategic transport and industrial policies decided at a national level, there is a considerable element of air quality management which requires undertaking at the local level, on a city-scale.

As discussed in Topic Differences in responsibilities for air pollution between levels of government across Europe, the European Framework on Ambient Air Quality places responsibilities for AQM only on the shoulders of Member States (e.g. at a national government level). In order for the Member States to be confident of achieving the Limit Values (and confident that they have achieved them) they will need to be certain that appropriate measures are being taken at the city/local level. This Topic looks at ways in which this confidence can be achieved through the establishment of a clear framework for both the national and local authorities to see their actions.

3. Discussion

In order for Member States to be confident that the EU Limit Values will be achieved within all areas of their country two goals must be achieved:

· They must have a clear idea of what air quality is like (at a very fine scale) across all parts of the country;

· Where the former has shown that AQ is currently unlikely to meet the Limit Values it is essential that the national government is aware of possible actions being carried out with regard to improving it.

Topic Differences in responsibilities for air pollution between levels of government across Europe looks at how responsibilities have been transferred from the national governments of Member States to lower levels of government. This Topic differs in that it looks at the frameworks and assistance that can be provided to help/ensure that local government can meet the Limit Values.

Very few countries in Europe have managed to implement a successful framework for carrying out this process. The UK is regularly cited as having one of the best examples of a framework and so the following outline will be based mainly on elements that have been implanted there.

· Statutory Responsibilities – Probably the most important driver for ensuring that Local Authorities put due priority on air quality work is by making it a statutory requirement. Environmental issues are regularly sidelined in favour of economic benefits and this is a reliable way in which local government air quality officers can have their standing within the council increased. In the UK clear responsibilities have been laid out for local government to make them carry out ‘Review and Assessments’ of their local air quality, declare ‘Air Quality Management Areas’ in any places where the UK AQ Objectives appear unlikely to be met, and then, where necessary, to devise local action plans N.B. UK Las only have a responsibility to ‘work towards’ meeting objectives – not to actually achieve them.

· Financial Resources – Many people might put this in first place – however, without statutory responsibilities or strong ring-fencing, it is unlikely that local government priorities would divert as much money as intended towards air quality work. Assistance with finances also becomes necessary one the legal requirements to do the work have been put in place.

· Guidance – Again, the imposition of a legal requirement to carry out certain air quality work requires further assistance to be put in place. In order for national governments to ensure that local government can be fairly expected to comply, there is a need for guidance to be issued to the Local Authorities clearly outlining how work should be carried out and to what standard. This is particularly important in terms of how monitoring and modelling should be carried out so that all work is of an acceptable standard and comparable. Basic guidance can be issued in the form of written manuals. However, in the UK and also in the Netherlands the national governments have set up special ‘helpdesks’ where air quality experts are employed to give targeted one-to-one advice to local authorities.

On top of basic Guidance, there is a wide range of work that National Governments can carry out to help local authorities to make adequate assessments of their air quality. These include:

Providing information on national background concentrations of pollution so that local resources can be focussed on identifying their locally generated components;

Disseminating information that is held at a national level on emissions from various sources;

Making any monitoring data collected at a national level easily available;

Ensuring that all Local Authorities and government agencies are briefed properly with regard to responsibilities to share information and generally behave in a co-operative manner (e.g. National transport/highways agencies must be briefed with regard to AQ responsibilities);

Providing training opportunities for Local Authority officers, as once statutory responsibilities are put in place for all Local Authorities there may well be a shortage of experienced staff;

· Additional powers can be granted to Local Authorities to help them improve air quality. Some of the powers set forward in the UK include: road-user charging, workplace parking levy, roadside emissions testing, and prevention of emissions from parked/idling vehicles.

· One of the final things that national governments can do is to raise air quality on their own (and the nation’s) agenda. By encouraging the use of public transport at a national level, and being seen to not have a transport policy based on building new roads, national governments can begin to create an environment where the car is not the primary form of transport and local authorities are not working in independent isolation to try and solve a problem that requires significant action at both a local AND national level.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Due to need for action on air quality management to be undertaken at both a national and local level it is extremely desirable that a strong framework is imposed by national governments. This is in their interests as it will be they who will have to answer to the EU if Limit Values are not achieved.

· The framework should be set up so that it ensures that excessive actions are not required from authorities who may not have a serious air quality problem. At the same time though, it must ensure that all areas do pay at least the minimum attention necessary to this issue. Suitable direction should also ensure that all work is of suitable quality and in an easily comparable format. Again this is something that is in the interest of the national government.

· What is crucial in directing the process, is that the local authorities are not restricted in the extent to which they can choose to bring about air quality improvements. All direction and guidance should be on the basis of being enabling and not limiting, and should seek to ensure that all local authorities are in the position where they can, most efficiently and effectively, do the minimum required to achieve or maintain good air quality for their citizens

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· General Assessment: http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/index.html

· Modelling: http://www.casellastanger.com/JointProjects/DEFRA-Home.asp?jointprojectid=7

· Monitoring and Emissions: http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/index.php

· Action Planning: http://www.casellastanger.com/JointProjects/DEFRA-Home.asp?jointprojectid=10

· Information and guidance for local authorities to help with Local Air Quality Management process in UK. http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/index.html

· Tools to help local authorities carry out assessments of air quality.: http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/laqm/laqm.php

· National UK archive of air pollution data/information: http://www.airquality.co.uk/

· Dutch consultancy contracted to provide assistance to local authorities with AQM issues: http://www.infomil.nl/

· UK national government air quality division webpage: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/index.htm

· National Government help and guidelines:

· http://www.infomil.nl/ - Dutch consultancy contracted to provide assistance to local authorities with AQM issues.

· http://www.vrom.nl/ - Issues concerning the tasks of the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning (land use) and the Environment

· http://www.rivm.nl/ - Technical reports on health and environment and measurements from national air quality stations

· http://www.platformschonevoertuigen.nl/ - Information about cleaner vehicles

· http://www.luchtkwaliteitsplan.nl/ - Exchanging platform (members) measures on air quality

· http:/www.bmu.bund.de/files/vo_begruendung.pdf[d1]

· Member States and air quality contacts: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/links.htm

· Italian Government Regional Affairs web site: http://www.governo.it/affariregionali/

· Italian Environment Ministry web site: http://www.minambiente.it/

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The EU Framework Directive on Ambient Air Quality Assessment and Management (96/62/EC) requires Member States to transpose, implement and report on the contents of the Framework Directive. Whilst it is clear that Member States have an over-riding responsibility for the whole process, it is clear that some responsibilities can be delegated to lower levels of government or other bodies within the State. This is expressed in Article 3:

For the implementation of this Directive, the Member States shall designate at the appropriate levels the competent authorities and bodies responsible for:

· Implementation of this Directive;

· Assessment of ambient air quality;

· Approval of the measuring devices (methods. equipment, networks, laboratories),

· Ensuring accuracy of measurement by measuring devices and checking the maintenance of such accuracy by those devices, in particular by internal quality controls carried out in accordance, inter alia, with the requirements of European quality assurance standards;

· Analysis of assessment methods;

· Coordination on their territory of Community-wide quality assurance programmes organized by the Commission.

The much of the scope for delegation of responsibilities is to secondary levels of government. These loosely fall in to the categories of regional, provincial and municipal (although names vary between countries).

Annex IV of the Framework Directive expressly states that the Action Plans/Programmes required in Article 8 to attain the limit values can be based on local, regional or national scales. Again the “responsible authority” must be named making it clear that Action Plans are not necessarily the remit of the Member State at a national level.

3. Discussion

Although the range of governmental strata mentioned in the introduction (national, regional, provincial and municipal) are not ubiquitous in all EU Member States, this general pattern of governmental hierarchy is usually recognisable in some form. All countries have there own historical pattern of responsibility for air pollution within these structures, some of it related to previous EU environmental legislation.

One of the greatest variations between States is the autonomy either granted to or taken up by different levels in the hierarchy. One example of this is Germany where the secondary ‘regional’ tier of government is comprised of the federal states who have their own legislative assemblies. This autonomous situation is reflected in the decision by some German municipalities to set their own Environmental standards and objectives independent of national or state requirements. By contrast, in the UK, regional government is in the very early stages of development (Scotland and Wales only recently having acquired elected legislatures – and these are considered to be “devolved administrations” rather than regional government) and municipal authorities are very strongly bound to follow a very prescriptive methodology for air quality management laid out by the national government(s). Two things should be noted about the arrangement in the United Kingdom:

· Despite having a duty to carry out extensive AQM work for the UK government, UK municipal authorities have not been passed the responsibility for meeting EU limit values – being required instead to attain a set of national AQ objectives.

· Although the UK government has passed duties on to UK municipal authorities regarding AQM, similar duties have not been given to provincial (e.g. County) or regional bodies, or to national state agencies (Highways Agency/Environment Agency) despite these bodies having significant interest/control with regard to certain pollution sources.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

It should be made very clear within all levels of government (and other institutional bodies with interests in air pollution) where responsibilities for improving air pollution, and the powers for controlling air pollution, lie (the two not necessarily being the same). Where statutory provisions have not been made to make controlling bodies responsible, these parties should be encouraged to strongly participate in the air quality management process. This can be done in a number of ways:

· Ensuring that provincial and regional representatives are invited (and attend) relevant municipal meetings from very early on in the process

· Making sure that regular contact is made with these bodies and taking account of their various plans and programmes within work looking at forward projections of air quality and within any action plans or programmes

· Encouraging relevant bodies with no statutory responsibilities to undertake some process of corporate adoption of a role within the AQM process

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

European Framework Directive on Ambient Air Quality Assessment and Management: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett

Proposed regulations transposing the EC Air Quality Framework Directive and 1st Daughter Directive Consultation paper:

· http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/consult/aqframe/index.htm

· Member States and air quality contacts: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/links.htm

· Commission portal on “What is environmental governance?” http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/governance/index_en.htm

· http://www.minambiente.it/%20(Italian%20Environment%20Ministry%20web%20site)

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Last Updated

30th November 1999

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Introduction

As the responsible entity/person in your local area for the air quality and its assessment and compliance with EC Directives, it is wise that you obtain a good understanding of the concepts and terms which are used connected to air quality assessment and reporting requirements.

The Air Quality Directives of the European Commission, the Directive on Air Quality Assessment and Management ("Framework") Directive of 1996 (96/62/EC) and the Daughter Directives of 1999-2002 for specific compounds (SO₂, NO₂, NO_x, PM₁₀ and lead (Directive 1999/30/EC); CO and benzene (second Daughter Directive (2000/69/EC)); ozone (2002/3/EC) represent a new way of dealing with and controlling the air quality problems in Europe. The Directives prescribe how they should be assessed in a way which covers the entire EU territory, in terms which are sometimes general and sometimes specific, and how the assessment should be reported to the Commission as well as to the public, and how action plans should be developed to reduce the pollutant concentrations where they are too high.

Compared to the previous directives, the concept of Limit Value (LV) is kept, but the requirements related to monitoring, assessment, reporting, compliance and controls are specified in much more detail. To this end, new concepts, elements and terms are introduced which need to be fully understood by those who should implement the Directives, in order that the resulting management of air pollution becomes effective and harmonised in the European area.

This topic description gives short descriptions of most of the central concepts, elements and terms used in the Directives, to enhance the understanding of them. The concepts and terms are described in a more complete way in the "Guidance on Assessment under the EU Air Quality Directives" report (see the reading list below).

3. Discussion

Terms related to limit values and assessment areas and regimes

Zones

Member States must divide their territory into zones. This is a task done at national level, and the local level is usually not involved in the definition of the zones. Zones are primarily areas restricted in size, selected/defined such that they are suitable units for air quality management. A zone should be selected such that its AQ problems can be assessed and managed as much as possible without having to deal with sources and emissions outside the zone in a very detailed manner.

There are no formal requirements as to how the Member State should specify its zones, but general principles for this, and typical tendencies in Member States based upon practical considerations are described in the “Guidance report”. The Member States are to report annually the air quality situation in the zones.[d1] Zones can be large cities (agglomerations). Other types of zones can be small (possibly as small as sections of streets), or large (region of a country).

Agglomeration: An “agglomeration” is a special type of zone, defined as an urban area with population exceeding 250,000. Each such agglomeration shall be defined as a separate zone.

Practice in most MS is to use larger administrative areas as zones, in addition to agglomerations and in a few cases smaller urban areas which are also defined as separate zones, when there is a risk that the LV/TVs are being exceeded in them.

Limit values and related terms

Limit value (LV): The limit value for a pollutant is set such that concentrations below the LV is considered to provide adequate protection against damage to those affected by it (people, vegetation, buildings). A "limit value" is a combination of a concentration value (number) and an associated averaging time (e.g. hour, day, year,...) and (for hours or days) possibly a number of allowed exceedances per year.

Target Value (TV): This value (also a combination of a numerical value and an averaging time) is set with the aim to avoid more long-term harmful effects on human heath and/or the environment.

Upper assessment threshold (UAT): A value set at about 60-70% of the LV. If the pollutant level is above UAT, certain requirements of AQ assessment must be fulfilled in the various zones.

Lower assessment threshold (LAT): A value set at about 40-50% of the LV. If the pollutant level is below the LAT, the requirements to the monitoring are relaxed; assessment solely by modelling is allowed.

Alert threshold: A value for certain pollutants which represents a level of danger to the population. If the pollutant level is above this value, the population must be alerted without delay, for instance via radio (see Informing the public).

Margin of Tolerance (MOT): This term describes the situation that the pollution level must be phased down towards the LV, as the LV is coming into force. The LV/TVs are to be met in 2005 or 2010. In the years before that, it is tolerated by the Commission that the pollutant level exceeds the LV/TV, limited to a given “margin”, without corrective actions being required. This margin is made successively smaller the closer it gets to the year of attainment (2005 or 2010). If the LV+MOT is higher than a prescribed level in a given year before the LV must be met, the Directive requires that corrective actions be planned.

Assessment regimes in zones

The term "Assessment regimes" relates to the broad types of assessment methodologies that can be used: monitoring at different levels of accuracy; different modelling methodologies. In the directives, it is the air pollution level in an area, which determines which types of assessment methodologies the Commission will accept being used for the area. This can be broadly summarised as below:

· If the air pollution level of a compound exceeds the UAT, monitoring at high quality with high temporal resolution is required;

· If the level is below the LAT, indicative measurements, modelling and objective estimation methods will be accepted

· At levels between these two thresholds, the requirements to methodologies are less strict that when levels are higher.

Appendix 1 describes this in more detail.

Where should the Limit Values apply? Definition of "residential areas"

In principle, the LVs apply everywhere, except for at work places. At the same time, a pragmatic approach to AQ management should be taken. Exceedances at places where exposure of the population (or of ecosystems, in the case of ecosystems related LVs) is not likely, should not be treated as rigorously as areas where exposure is likely. An example of this is exposure to an annual average LV in areas along a rural stretches of motorways.

The question above is met when designing monitoring networks, and locating monitoring stations. The 1st Daughter Directive specifies that monitoring stations should be located:

· Where a population group is likely to be exposed to the highest concentrations that occur, for a period which is a significant part of the averaging period of the LV;

· So that it represents the more general level of population exposure in the area.

In both cases, the location of stations is based on population exposure considerations.

Local AQ administrators may want to concentrate their monitoring in "residential areas", in view of the importance of the exposure of the population. The definition of "residential areas" in terms of AQ management is then that they include all areas where a part of the population is likely to be exposed to high and/or typical concentration levels.

Terms related to assessments

Preliminary assessment (PA)

This term refers to the assessment of air quality before the Directive enters into force in order to define zones, monitoring networks and assessment methods. If a Member State does not have sufficient information about the AQ levels in all their zones and agglomeration, it must carry out the necessary series of representative measurements, surveys or assessments so that they have data available in time for the implementation of the Directives.

The Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment under the EU AQ Directives is an example of a source of information on how to carry out a preliminary assessment (see the reading list below).

Supplementary assessment

This is the term for methods for assessment of air pollution which are used in addition to the measurements/monitoring of concentrations. These methods are creating an emission inventory, indicative measurements and air quality modelling, (which gives additional information, such as on spatial distribution of concentrations between the monitoring stations), human exposure, contributions from various source types, etc. This gives a better basis for development of effective action plans. Supplementary assessment is not mandatory; if not carried out, a higher number of stations is prescribed. The supplementary methods, and their results, must be documented and reported in the Annual report.

Spatial concentration distribution

This term is new in connection with EU AQ Directives. The assessment of AQ should now not be limited to what is measured at the monitoring stations. The assessment should in principle cover the whole territory, and for this purpose the so-called "supplementary methods", such as modelling (see above) are encouraged by the Directives.

How to assess if a zone is in exceedance?

A zone is exceedance of an LV, when:

· A station in monitoring network with suitably located stations(stations in areas with maximum and/or typical concentration levels) measures the exceedance;

· The assessment using also supplementary methods (emissions, modelling) indicates that the LV is exceeded at locations where monitors are not located.

The assessment should also indicate the size of the population which is exposed to various levels of concentrations above the LV.

Exemption ("derogation") for natural events and for other reasons

For PM₁₀, natural sources can at times contribute significantly to its concentration. Since natural sources cannot be controlled, the Commission allows that exceedances of LV which are caused by natural events (e.g. sand storms, suspended soil dust) shall not be taken into account when determining whether the LV is exceeded.

Also high PM₁₀ levels caused by resuspension of dust from winter sanding of roads can be exempted. These events have to documented/justified as being caused by such events.

Terms related to reporting

Regular reporting to the Commission

The responsibility for reporting to the Commission is at the national level. The local level normally provides their data to some national database suited for further reporting to the Commission. The following types of reports are to be prepared at the national level for submission to the Commission (see also Topic LEG4):

Annual Report: The Annual reporting from each Member State to the Commission has the form of an official questionnaire, to be sent in before 1 October of the following year. The questionnaire has sections regarding zones where LV, UAT and LAT are exceeded, reasons for individual exceedances, on methods, etc.

Starting date: The first Annual report to the Commission should be submitted before 1 October 2002, and concern 2001 data and assessments. Annual reports shall be submitted for each subsequent year.

Information to the public

This term refers to the obligation of the administrators to keep the public up-to-date on information on air pollution levels, as well as on the plans and programs for management and improvement of the air quality.

The pollutant concentration information shall be updated at least once per day. High air pollution episodes, where Alert levels are likely to be exceeded, should be communicated in time that the population affected have a chance to seek protection.

Reporting on causes of exceedances and reduction plans

This term has a bearing on the air quality assessment regime and system that a local administrator needs to set up. The Commission requires that causes of LV exceedances are reported – that this represents the basis for development of the local plans and programmes to improve the situation.

The administrator needs to assure that the causes can be described, and for this he will need information about the strength of the various emission sources (an emissions inventory), probably also air quality models as well as meteorological data which together can be used to calculate/estimate source contributions at given times with high concentration levels.

If the concentrations exceed the LV+MOT, the responsible authorities must develop a ‘plan or programme’ to ensure that the levels are brought below the limit value in time and send this to the Commission.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· As the responsible entity/person in your local area for the air quality and its assessment and compliance with EC Directives, it is wise to obtain a good understanding of the concepts and terms which are used connected to assessment and reporting requirements. The above text gives a first introduction.

· Further reading includes of course the Directives themselves, and the Guidance on assessment report (see references below). It is also recommended to contact people in other administrative areas in your country, or in other countries, who have already carried out the work, partly or fully. It should be noted that for cities the transposition of the directives in national law is the most relevant legislation for cities. In some countries the Ministry of Environment provides clarification of the directives and the corresponding national legislation.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· The main Air Quality web page of the Commission (DG Environment, Air Quality: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm

· The Guidance to Assessment under the EU Air Quality Directives report: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm, click on Guidance on Assessment under the EU Air Quality Directives

· The Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment under the EU AQ Directives: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm, click on Guidance report on Preliminary Assessment under EC Air Quality Directives

Appendix 1

Relationship between air pollution levels (relative to Limit Value) and the Assessment regimes prescribed in the first Daughter Directive.

Source: The "Guidance on assessment under the EU AQ Directives" report (see web link above).

Table 1 summarizes the assessment requirements for the three assessment regimes.

Table 1 Air quality assessment and pollution levels

¹⁾ Data quality objectives are given in Annex VIII of the first Daughter Directive.

²⁾ In the first Daughter Directive this only applies to SO₂ and NO₂.

³⁾ Indicative measurements are measurements using simple methods, or carried out for a restricted time. They are less accurate than continuous high quality measurement but can be used to explore air quality as a check where pollution levels are relatively low, and to supplement high quality measurement in other areas.

Last Updated

25th January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Last Updated

30th November 1999

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The Air Quality Legislation started in 1970. Since then, four types of measures have been adopted with numerous Directives and Regulations: measures regulating emission sources, regulating fuel qualities, monitoring/regulating air quality and protection of the stratospheric ozone layer. The full compliance, application, implementation and enforcement of these measures are basic in order to improve the quality of our air and achieve a high level of environmental protection in general.

The Sixth Environmental Action Programme http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_242/l_24220020910en00010015.pdf states the importance of a full compliance with the Environmental Law by Member States (MS). It is equally essential to be able to monitor compliance with legislation and to keep the public informed up-to-date about the state of the environment. Also Article 228 of the Treaties (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/c_325/c_32520021224en00010184.pdf) obliges Member States to comply with the judgements given by the European Court of Justice.

EU policy on Air Quality aims to implement appropriate instruments to improve the quality of the air. The control of emissions from industrial and mobile sources, improving fuel quality and promoting and integrating environmental protection requirements into the industrial, transport and energy sectors are part of these aims.

The current status of the EU Air Quality legislation can be seen at the following web page: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm

3. Discussion

Air Quality Directives

The most relevant Directives are the Directive on ambient air quality assessment and management (96/62/EC, the so-called Framework Directive) and the four Daughter Directives. The Framework Directive provides the framework for the development of the other Directives on a range of air pollutants. The transposition date for Article 3 (re. Implementation and responsibilities) was 21 May 1998 and by this date all MS except Spain had complied with the obligations.

The Daughter directives set pollutant-specific air quality limits and alert thresholds. Basically, these directives have the objective of harmonizing monitoring strategies, measuring methods, calibration and quality assessment methods to get comparable measurements in the EU. Guide values and air quality limit values will be withdrawn once these directives have been implemented.

The first Daughter Directive 1999/30/EC on limit values for NOx, SO₂, Pb and PM₁₀ in ambient air

http://europa.eu.int/eurlex/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_163/l_16319990629en00410060.pdf

came into force on 19 July 1999 with transposition deadline for Member States of July 2001 to set up their monitoring strategies. The AQ limit values adopted for SO2, NOx, PM10 and Pb generally met the cost-benefit criterion that industry work with Member States shall ensure that updated information on ambient concentrations of SO₂, NOx, PM and Pb is available to the public on a regular basis (link to the Topic How should the public be informed about the Air Quality situation ? on Informing the public) The deadlines for the limit values to be met are as follows:

- limit values for NOx for the protection of vegetation: 2001.

- limit values for SO2 and PM10 for health protection: 2005.

- limit values for NO2 and Pb for health protection: 2010.

Member States have to prepare attainment programmes which show how the limit values are going to be met on time for those areas where attainment by "business as usual" cannot be presumed. These programmes must be made available to the public (including local authorities), and must also be sent to the Commission. A Commission report has just been finalised (and it is being translated into different languages) on the implementation of this Directive relating to limit values for SO₂ and NOx, PM and Pb. The report assesses the experiences of the MS in implementing this Directive and looks at the results of recent scientific research on the effects on human health and ecosystems of exposure to NOx, SO₂, Pb and PM_10. This Directive has been amended by Decision 2001/744/EC (http://europa.eu.int/eurlex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_278/l_27820011023en00350036.pdf) replacing section II of Annex V of the Framework Directive.

The second Daughter Directive 2000/69/EC on limit values for benzene and carbon monoxide in ambient air
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2000/l_313/l_31320001213en00120021.pdf came into force on the 13^th of December 2000 with a deadline for transposition of 13^th December 2002. It established limit values for concentrations of benzene and CO in ambient air requiring assessing concentrations of those pollutants in ambient air and to obtain regularly information on benzene concentrations and CO and ensure that it is made available to the public. The limit value for carbon monoxide must be met by 2005. The limit value for benzene must be met by 2010 (but an extension can be granted). Member States, in the same way as in the first daughter Directive, will have to prepare attainment programmes for those areas where attainments cannot be assumed without further changes. These programmes have to be also available to the public and sent to the Commission.

The third Daughter Directive 2002/03/EC on ozone in ambient air (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_067/l_06720020309en00140030.pdf) replaces the ozone Directive (92/72/EC). It entered into force in March 2002 and had a deadline for transposition of September 2003. It sets long-term objectives equivalent to the World Health Organisation’s new guidelines and interim target values (which follow the targets of Directive 2001/81/EC on national emission ceilings) for ozone in ambient air to be achieved by 2010. Member States have to work out reduction plans and programmes, make them available to the public (so citizens can trace the progress towards obtaining the ozone standards) and report to the Commission.. The Directive also requires monitoring, assessment of ozone concentrations and information to citizens about the current ozone concentrations . The Directive also sets alert thresholds and requires Member States' authorities to take urgent short-term action.

Concerning the proposal for a fourth Daughter Directive (COM(2003) 423 final) on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air, this will cover the other pollutants listed in Annex I of 96/62/EC (cadmium, arsenic nickel and polyaromatic hydrocarbons and mercury). It will require MS to report to the Commission and inform the public in case of higher concentrations than the ones indicated in the Directive, the causes behind them and the measures taken to address the situation. As from 2008, any installation contributing to high concentrations of these substances will be required to apply Best Available Techniques for control of the emissions. This proposal is expected to be adopted in 2005. See latest press release regarding this directive: http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/03/1020&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en

Other air pollution related legislation

Following is a list of other related Directives, and their transposition dates:

• Directive 97/68/EC on emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants-30 June 98;
• Directive 98/70/EC on quality of petrol and diesel fuels-1 July 1999;
• Directive 99/32/EC on Sulphur content-1 July 2000;
• Directive 99/94/EC on consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions-18 January 2001;
• Decision 00/1753/EC on monitoring the emissions of CO2 from new passenger cars-28 February 2001;
• Directive 99/13 on VOC-1 April 2001 and
• Directive 00/71/EC on measuring methods-1 January 2001.

Infringement proceedings are open against various Member States concerning the implementation measures.

The implementation process of the Directives

Several directives on air quality have entered into force recently or will be adopted soon. Implementation of legislation by the Member States is a basic requirement for the effectiveness of EU policy in this area. Under the Commission Communication (COM(2001) 245 final) (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/pdf/2001/com2001_0245en01.pdf)the Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme established in such Communication has “to support the implementation and review the effectiveness of existing legislation, in particular the air quality daughter directives (1999/30/EC, 2000/69/EC, 2002/3/EC), the decision on exchange of information (97/101/EC),…”. The AQ framework Directive requires four key implementation tasks to be undertaken by the respective actors: i) planning and implementation; ii) monitoring; iii) plans and programmes and iv) information and reporting. A Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment under Article 5 and another one on Assessment under Article 6 of directive 96/62/EC are available (see reading list).

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

From the Annual Survey of the Commission, it can be seen that the implementation of the Air Quality Directives is quite acceptable compared to many other environmental sectors (environmental impact, information, chemicals and biotechnology, nature, waste, water, radiation protection and others). There is a 13,3% of open infringement proceedings compared to 26,3% in the nature aspects or 20% on waste files, so it can be pointed out that, in general, Air Quality legislation is being well implemented although greater efforts still have to be made to reach a high level of protection of the air and comply with the requirements of the legislation to implement monitoring strategies, plans, programmes and limit values.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

• Decision 1600/02/EC on the Sixth Environmental Action Programme. OJ L 242/1, 10.9.02: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/newprg/index.htm )
• Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC, OJ L 296, November 21, 1996: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett
• First daughter Directive 1999/30/EC on SO₂, NO₂, PM10 and Lead: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31999L0030&model=guichett
• Second Daughter Directive 2000/69 on CO and benzene: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=32000L0069&model=guichett

• Third Daughter Directive 2002/3/EC on ozone: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_067/l_06720020309en00140030.pdf
• Proposal for a Fourth Daughter Directive (COM)2003)423 final on heavy metals and PAH: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_067/l_06720020309en00140030.pdf
• Decision 2001/744/EC (Amendment to the first DD): http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_278/l_27820011023en00350036.pdf
• Third Annual Survey on the Implementation and Enforcement of Community Environmental Law: SEC 2002/1041
• Commission Communication on implementing environmental law, COM (96) 500 final, 22.10.1996: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Preparatory&in_force=NO&an_doc=1996&nu_doc=500&type_doc=COMfinal
• Directive 97/68/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=1997&nu_doc=68&type_doc=Directive
• Directive 98/70/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=1998&nu_doc=70&type_doc=Directive

• Directive 99/32/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=1999&nu_doc=32&type_doc=Directive
• Directive 99/94/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=1999&nu_doc=94&type_doc=Directive
• Decision 00/1753/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=2000&nu_doc=1753&type_doc=Decision
• Directive 99/13/EC on VOC: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_188/l_18819990721en00540054.pdf
• Directive 00/71/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/servlet/portail/RenderServlet?search=DocNumber&lg=en&nb_docs=25&domain=Legislation&coll=&in_force=NO&an_doc=2000&nu_doc=71&type_doc=Directive

• “Guidance Report” Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment and on Air Quality Assessments Guidance report on Preliminary Assessment under EC Air Quality Directives
• Recommendations on plans and programmes to be drafted under directive 96/62/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/working_groups/recommend_plans_programmes.pdf
• Air quality assessment around sources points (note by the CAFÉ WG on Implementation): http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/working_groups/guidance3revised.pdf

• Handbook for implementation of EU Environmental legislation-Air Quality (pag. 30): http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/air.pdf
• WHO guidelines on Air Quality: http://www.euro.who.int/document/e71922.pdf)

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The EU Air Quality Directives state that sharing the air quality information with the public is essential, especially for people suffering from various lung and respiratory diseases. The basic level of public information on air quality, that is one of the essential requirements of the EU Daughter Directives, concerns the ambient concentrations of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, lead, benzene and carbon monoxide.

The Directives also state that the public shall be kept informed about plans and programmes drawn up for reduction of the air pollution levels.

The responsibility for the public information requirements is put on the shoulders of the local authorities.

Information made available to the public and to organisations must be clear, comprehensible and accessible.

3. Discussion

Information of plans and programmes for air pollution reduction

The EU Framework Directive 1996/62/EC asks the Member States to draw up a list of zones and agglomerations in which the levels of one or more pollutants are higher than the limit value plus the margin of tolerance. In these zones and agglomerations Member States shall take measures to ensure that programmes are prepared or implemented for attaining the limit values within the specific time limit. These programmes must be available for the public, and should incorporate, at least, the following information (see more details in Framework Directive 96/62/EC):

• Localisation of excess pollution (region; city (map); measuring station (map, geographical coordinates);
• General information (type of zone (city, industrial or rural area); estimate of the polluted area (km²) and of the population exposed to the pollution; useful climatic data; relevant data on topography; sufficient information on the type of targets requiring protection in the zone);
• Responsible authorities (names and addresses of persons responsible for the development and implementation of improvement plans);
• Nature and assessment of pollution (concentrations observed over previous years (before the implementation of the improvement measures); concentrations measured since the beginning of the project; techniques used for the assessment);
• Origin of pollution (list of the main emission sources, etc. responsible for pollution (map); total quantity of emissions from these sources (tonnes/year); information on pollution imported from other regions);
• Analysis of the situation (details of those factors responsible for the excess (transport, including cross-border transport, formation); details of possible measures for improvement of air quality);
• Details of those measures or projects for improvement which existed prior to the entry into force of this Directive i.e. (local, regional, national, international measures; observed effects of these measures);
• Details of those measures or projects adopted with a view to reducing pollution following the entry into force of this Directive (listing and description of all the measures set out in the project; timetable for implementation; estimate of the improvement of air quality planned and of the expected time required to attain these objectives);
• Details of the measures or projects planned or being researched for the long term and
• List of the publications, documents, work, etc., used to supplement information requested.

Information on air quality levels on a regular basis

The EU Daughter Directives regulate the need for public information on regular basis. The air quality data collected from monitoring stations, controlling the limit values and the alert thresholds, must be made available to the public on various time bases.

Information on ambient concentrations of air pollutants must routinely be made available to the public as well as to appropriate organisations such as environmental organisations, consumer organisations, organisations representing the interests of sensitive populations and other relevant health-care bodies by means, for example, of broadcast media, press, information screens or computer-network services, teletext, telephone or fax.

The first Daughter Directive 1999/30/EC

Information on ambient concentrations of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter should be updated on at least a daily basis, and, in the case of hourly values for sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, wherever practicable, information shall be updated on an hourly basis.

Information on ambient concentrations of lead should be updated on a three-monthly basis.

The second EU Daughter Directive 2000/69/EC

Information on ambient concentrations of benzene, as an average value over the last 12 months, should be updated on at least a three-monthly basis and wherever practicable, information should be updated on a monthly basis.

Information on ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide, as a maximum running average over eight hours, should be updated on at least a daily basis and wherever practicable, information should be updated on an hourly basis.

Public information should, at least, indicate any exceedances of the concentrations stated in the limit values over the averaging periods and also provide a short assessment in relation to limit values and appropriate information regarding effects on health.

The third EU Daughter Directive 2002/03/EC

Information on ozone levels should be updated on - at least a daily basis and, wherever appropriate and practicable, on an hourly basis.

Such information should at least indicate all exceedances of the concentrations in the long-term objective for the protection of health, the information threshold and the alert threshold for the relevant averaging period. It should also provide a short assessment in relation to effects on health.

Information requirements when Limit or Alert Values are exceeded

In the cases when the exceedance of limit value has occurred, the information of the exceedance must be available for the public as soon as possible. This information should include the time when the exceedance occurred, the concentration level compared to the limit value and the pollutant’s potential health effects.

People must be informed as immediate as possible when exceedance of the alert or information threshold for nitrogen dioxide, PM₁₀ and sulphur dioxide values occurs. This information should at least include:

· the date, hour and place of the occurrence and the reasons for the occurrence, where known;

· any forecasts of changes in concentrations (improvement, stabilisation, or deterioration), together with the reasons for those changes;

· the geographical area concerned;

· the duration of the occurrence;

· the type of population potentially sensitive to the occurrence;

· the precautions to be taken by the sensitive population concerned.

In this case, when fast information is important, radio, television or the press or other fast means of spreading information must be used.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The best way of spreading the information is to use local radios and local newspapers. Other useful tools are information screens or computer-network services located in the city centres. Internet is also a very useful tool to spread the information on air quality.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Information for the Public in Bristol

PM10 Real-time data information for the Veneto reregion urban areas

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

• Council Directive 1996/62/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air quality assessment and management (Official Journal L 296, 21/11/1996 P. 0055 – 0063, http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett

· Council Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 relating to limit values for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient air (Official Journal L 163, 29/06/1999 P. 0041 – 0060, http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=31999L0030&model=guichett)

· Directive 2000/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 November 2000 relating to limit values for benzene and carbon monoxide in ambient air (Official Journal L 313, 13/12/2000 P. 0012 – 0021, http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32000L0069&model=guichett)

· Directive 2002/3/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 February 2002 relating to ozone in ambient air (Official Journal L 067, 09/03/2002 P. 0014 – 0030, http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32002L0003&model=guichett

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The Air Quality Directives specify various reporting requirements. The directives address the national level, but in many Member States this responsibility is partly passed through to the region and local level. There are regular reports to be sent about the air quality and about measures to improve air quality. A purpose of the reports is that Member States learn from each other, and so it is the policy of the Commission to publish the results of the reports.

3. Discussion

The Framework Directive sets the most important reporting requirements (Article 11). The two most relevant reports are:

• Annual reporting on air quality in the previous year, based on monitoring, possibly also on modelling. This report, to be sent to the Commission before 1 October, has been specified in more detail in Council Decision 2002/839/EC, which describes a detailed questionnaire to be filled in. A guideline explains this report further. Each Member State has its own internal system for collecting the data. Under the ozone directive, there are during also reporting requirements after each summer month and each summer on threshold exceedances (See example report in the web links section below). The role of cities varies between Member States: in some countries this is in practice entirely done at the national level, in other countries regions and cities have to provide air quality monitoring data and possibly modelling results to the national level, following instructions from the Ministry.
• Reporting of “plans or programmes” to reduce air pollution. Reduction plans have to be developed within two years for all locations where the air pollution levels are so high that exceedance is to be expected by the time that the limit value has to be met (2005 or 2010, depending on the pollutant). The Commission has developed a summary format for the report to be sent to the Commission, which describes the exceedance situation and the reduction plan, and a working group has written a short guidance. In practice, cities will often have responsibility for developing such plans. It depends on the country whether cities have to draft the summary for the Commission themselves (following instructions from the Ministry) or whether the national level takes care of this.

For both reports the Commission plans to publish summary reports.

Apart from these reports, the Member States have to report annually the raw data of air quality measurements under the “Exchange of Information Decision”. These are processed by the European Environmental Agency, stored in the database AirBase, which can be accessed by anyone through the internet. Usually cities are not involved in this.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The wealth of data reported under the EU Air Quality legislation can be useful for local authorities for comparing their own situation with that of other similar places in Europe. Such information on air quality can be found in AirBase and shortly on the Commission’s website; an overview of (local) reduction plans in Europe is to be expected around the end of 2004.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Reporting questionnaire on the First Daughter Directive: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_012/l_01220020115en00700089.pdf

· AirBase: http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/airbase.html

· Air quality website of the European Commission: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/index.htm

· Air pollution by ozone in Europe in summer 2003 - Overview of exceedances of EC ozone threshold values during the summer season April–August 2003 and comparisons with previous years: http://reports.eea.eu.int/topic_report_2003_3/en

Last Updated

21st January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Last Updated

30th November 1999

1. Topic

2. Introduction

According to the Air Quality Directives of the European Commission, it is a requirement that air quality monitoring networks are established in urban areas in Europe where the pollutant concentrations are higher that certain levels (see the Topic How to do Urban AQ assessments? Overview of structure and methods, NILU/Venice). All agglomerations with more that 250,000 inhabitants have to have such a network, while for smaller cities, the national authorities decide which of them should have monitoring networks. In terms of the requirements of the Directives, the number and selection of cities to be monitored is determined by the actual partitioning of the MS area into zones (see topic, as above).

The Directives include some specific requirements on the extent of the monitoring system, such as number of monitoring stations, types of locations to be monitored and methods. These requirements are not detailed enough to serve as a sufficient guide for local authorities to design a monitoring system which gives the most value for the available resources (funds, skilled manpower, time), in terms of fulfilling the requirements of the Directives as well as additional local needs.

The topic of design of urban monitoring networks has been treated in various studies and reports, to be summarised and referenced below.

3. Discussion

There are no generally valid rules for network design. It is determined mainly by the overall monitoring objectives and resource availability. Although monitoring systems can have just a single, specific objective, it is more common for them to have a broad range of targeted programme functions. No network design can hope to completely address all the possible monitoring objectives listed below:

Monitoring Objectives

Determining compliance with national or EU limit values/standards

· Determining population exposure and health impact assessment;

· Informing the public about air quality and raising awareness;

· Identifying threats to natural ecosystems;

· Providing objective inputs to air quality management, traffic and land-use planning;

· Source apportionment and identification;

· Policy development and prioritization of management actions;

· Development/validation of management tools (models, Geographical Information Systems etc.);

· Assessing point or area source impacts and

· Trend qualification, to identify future problems or progress against management/control targets.

Network design

The design of the air quality monitoring network basically involves determining the number of stations and their location, and monitoring methods, with a view to the objectives, costs and available resources. (See Larssen, 1998 in the Further reading list).

There are two main basic approaches to determine the number of stations and locations: to locate stations in a regular geometric grid covering the city. The grid size thus determines the number of stations and to locate stations at sites considered to be representative for more defined local environments, exposure situations or source activities, such as urban background. While the first approach was used earlier, e.g. in Germany, the latter approach is now in more general use, and also the one prescribed by the Directives.

The typical approach to network design, appropriate over city-wide or national scale, thus involves sitting monitoring stations or sampling points at carefully selected representative locations, chosen on the basis of required data and known emission/dispersion patterns of the pollutants under study. This approach to network design requires considerably fewer sites than grid strategies and is, in consequence, cheaper to implement. However, sites must be carefully selected if measured data are to be useful. Moreover, modelling and other objective assessment techniques may need to be utilized to ‘’fill in the gaps’’ in any such monitoring strategy.

Another consideration in the basic approach to network design is the scale of the air pollution problem:

· The air pollution is of predominantly local origin. The network is then concentrated to within the urban area. Example: CO and benzene.

· There is a significant regional contribution to the problem. More emphasis then on the regional part. Example: ozone, PM.

· Large scale phenomena, such as winter smog episodes in NW Europe, or photochemical pollution episodes in the Mediterranean. Even more emphasis on the regional part of the network.

The number of sites depends of course upon the size and topography of the urban area, the complexity of the source mix and again upon the monitoring objectives. The Directives specify a minimum number of stations to be established dependent upon the population, and it also indicates what types of areas should be monitored (representing average as well as hot-spot exposure situations).

Some time should be invested into determining the number and location, to ensure that the network, which will normally be established to be operated over a long period (many years), will serve its purpose most effectively. A basic procedure of several steps should be followed:

· Start with a map showing main pollution related features such as urban central district, residential areas, areas of dense traffic, the main road network, large industrial plants and areas;

· Use a (preliminary) emissions inventory as a support to find the most polluted areas;

· Carry out preliminary dispersion modelling to identify polluted areas;

· Carry out surveys using inexpensive methods, such as passive samplers;

· Consider that different pollutants have different spatial scales of variability (e.g. CO concentrated near streets; NO₂ ozone and PM more evenly distributed).

The further process of location and number is subjective. Some guidance is given e.g. in the Guidance on Assessment under the EU Air Quality Directives report, and in the UK Technical Guidance Documents (see Further reading list below).

The site classification scheme used by the Commission is a guide that should be used in the network design, so that any stations can be classed according to that scheme, and such that the network covers as many as possible of the station classes:

· Level 1: Type of station: traffic, industrial, background;

· Level 2: Type of area: urban, suburban, rural.

(See the EC Exchange of Information (EoI) Decision: Council Decision 97/101/EC, and amendment: Commision Decision 2001/752/EC ).

Some countries have developed station classification schemes of their own, following the same basic principles as above, but deviating somewhat, e.g. UK and France (see examples and links in the further reading section below).

Each station should be described in terms of meta data, which includes data such as coordinates, type, specific location area of representativeness, additional data such as traffic data, etc. (see also EoI as above, and its guidance document: Guidance report on the Annexes to Decision 97/101/EC ).

Monitoring involves assessing pollutant behaviour in both space and time. A good network design should therefore seek to optimise both spatial and temporal coverage, within available resource constraints.

The first target is to maximizing spatial coverage and obtaining representative measurements. Once priority pollutants are selected, the sampling methods must be capable of a time resolution consistent with the pollutant averaging times specified in guidelines.

The compounds to be measured and the reference methods used are prescribed by the Directives.

An air quality monitoring network must, in addition to the air pollution monitoring part, also comprise a meteorology (dispersion parameter) monitoring part.

The meteorological data are needed for at least two reasons:

· For the interpretation of the temporal and spatial variation of the data from the air quality monitoring, there is an obvious need for meteorological data: wind speed and direction; parameters describing atmospheric turbulence and stability, such as temperature profiles (measurements at two or more heights), or direct turbulence measurements; mixing height; and ground air temperature.

· The meteorological data should provide hourly spatial fields of the meteorological/dispersion parameters, either by interpolation, or using a wind-field model. The calculation of dispersion parameters from the meteorological parameter measurements to be used in the dispersion models, usually require the use of a meteorological pre-processor.

Methods

Continuously operating automatic analysers may be used to assess compliance with short- or long-term guidelines. Well-recognised semi-automatic methods such as acidimetric SO₂ samplers, will be perfectly adequate for measurement against daily standards or criteria. For automatic analysers or samplers to reliably measure ambient pollutant concentrations, it is essential that these pollutants are transferred unchanged to the instrument reaction cell. The sampling manifold is a crucial and often overlooked component of any monitoring system, which strongly influences the overall accuracy and credibility of all the measurements made.

Integrating measurement methods such as passive samplers, although fundamentally limited in their time resolution, are useful for the assessment of long-term exposure, as well as being invaluable for a variety of area-screening, mapping and network design functions. Problems can arise, however, when using manual sampling methods in an intermittent, mobile or random deployment strategy. Such an approach is usually adopted for operational or instrumentation reasons, or simply because it would not be possible to analyse the sample numbers or data produced by continuous operation. Intermittent sampling is still widely used world-wide. However, this sampling strategy may be of limited utility in assessing diurnal, seasonal or annual pollutant patterns or, indeed, for a reliable assessment of population exposure patterns.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The design of air quality monitoring networks for urban areas is a demanding task, which will benefit from drawing on experiences gathered by those who have carried out such a process. It is recommended that you prepare for the design task by going through the reading material indicated below, as well as examples provided.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Example of monitoring networks in Bristol

An Urban Monitoring Network in Birmingham, UK

The Veneto Region air quality monitoring network optimisation project

Biological monitoring of air quality: Example used in the surroundings of the Porto Marghera industrial area (Venice, I)

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Central page on EC Directives and guidance documents: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm

· Larssen, 1998: Monitoring networks and Air Quality Management Systems. In: Fenger, Hertel and Palmgren (eds.): Urban Air Pollution – European Aspects. Dordrecht, 1998 (Kluwer Academic Publishers).

· Technical guidance documents: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/laqm/guidance/pdf/laqm-tg03.pdf

· Urban air quality management strategy in Asia - guidebook (World Bank Publication) http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSServlet?pcont=details&eid=000009265_3980312111305

· Technical report No 11, Guidance report on preliminary assessment under EC Air Quality Directives: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en/tab_content_RLR

· The Monitoring Technologies and Models in Urban Air Quality Management: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/criteria/ref1003.pdf

· French “Classification and criteria for setting up air-quality monitoring stations”: the web site link will be provided soon.

· The UK National Air Quality Information Archive: “Definition of monitoring site classes”: http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/siteclass.php

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The location of the monitoring stations in an urban monitoring network is an important issue. There are two basic applications of urban air quality monitoring data which sets, to some extent different, requirements to the location of the stations:

· Assessment of air quality directly from the monitoring results, as a basis for evaluation of exposure and health (and other) effects and

· Use of the monitoring for evaluation of dispersion models.

In both cases, the proper locating of stations is important, following certain criteria.

Some requirements to monitoring station location are given in the EU AQ Daughter Directives. Specifications of types of monitoring stations, with some location criteria, are given as part of the EU Exchange of Information (EoI) Decision as well as in EEA EUROAIRNET Criteria report (see references and links below).

Locating monitoring stations is an integral part of the Design of urban air quality monitoring network, which is described in topic How to design Urban monitoring networks, and what methods to use ?.

3. Discussion

Stations used for direct assessment of urban air quality

The number and types of stations to be established in the urban area is part of the network design process (see topic: How to design Urban monitoring networks, and what methods to use ?).

It has then also been decided in which parts of the urban area the stations will be located. This part of the location process can be termed "macro-locating", a term also referred to in the Directives, with some guidance.

The actual detailed locating of the station within the given area is then termed "micro-locating".

Important considerations re. micro-locating:

· The location must be representative of a certain area around it, so its measurements won't be representing only the very small area where it is located. The EoI Guidance report as well as the Directives and the EUROAIRNET criteria report give guidance of the minimum requirements on area of representativeness.

· The location of the air intake (or probe) relative to nearly dominating sources. See EoI and the Directives for guidance and

· The intake (or probe) for air to be sampled by the instruments must be placed according to given criteria, so that the sampled air is not influenced unduly by very local effects (such as distance to walls, vegetation, etc.)

Problems with micro-locating typically arises regarding availability of space for a station cabin at the desired location, and availability of electric power, phone lines (not so important now as mobile phones can be used), security and easy access. Such problems may result in compromises between the ideal and possible locations to be chosen.

An important aspect of the representativeness of a station location, in addition to its representativeness area, is its representativeness for the exposure situations it is supposed to represent: How does the station represent similar areas of exposure in the city? A good assessment of the representativeness area would require special monitoring and modelling studies. The need for such studies must be evaluated in each case.

Stations used for evaluation of dispersion models

In addition to the above criteria and problems, the locating of stations for model testing has to fulfil the following criteria:

Its location must be representative of an area which corresponds to the spatial resolution of the dispersion model. For instance.

· For a grid model which gives a calculated value which represents the average of e.g. a 1 km² area, the station must be located such that it also represents the average concentration of the km² area around it, which corresponds with the actual location of the grid used in the model. The model also represents the concentration in a certain height, or rather, the average value (height wise) of a layer of air of a given height (e.g. the lowest 30 m of the atmosphere). The combination of the location and height of the air inlet for the instruments must also be chosen so as to represent a similar average value, height wise.

· For a subgrid model, e.g. a line source model which calculates the concentrations near streets/roads, the station location must reflect the situation which is represented by the model. Typically, such a model gives the concentrations for an idealised type of street/building configuration (e.g. continuous building facades of similar height, both sides, although Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models exist which can calculate concentrations for more complex configurations) along the street section, away from influence from complicating effects near intersections. Typically, such stations should be located away from intersections in street sections with fairly homogeneous building topography.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The detailed location of AQ monitoring stations is a process that follows the network design process (see the How to design Urban monitoring networks, and what methods to use ?). Prepare for the station location by studying the EoI guidance, the Directives and the EUROAIRNET texts. Look also at examples from other cities, which have been through the process to benefit from their experiences.

5. Examples / Further Reading

• Monitoring locations in Turku region

• The Influence of Sampling Height to concentration of air pollutants

• The Veneto Region air quality monitoring network optimisation project

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· EU AQ Directives, especially Annexes related to locating of stations: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm

· Guidance on AQ Assessment under the AQ Directives report: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/guidanceunderairquality.pdf

· EEA EUROAIRNET Criteria Report: http://reports.eea.eu.int/search_results?SearchTitle=euroairnet

· Exchange of Information (EoI) Decision and its Guidance report: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/guidancetoannexes97101ec.pdf

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

SO2, NO₂, lead, CO and ozone are among the “classic” air pollutants which have been shown to represent a human health risk, as well as risk to ecosystems, when occurring in high enough concentrations. These pollutants have been monitored for many decades, and abatement policies have been implemented to reduce their concentrations and associated risk. Still, concentrations of these pollutants are sufficiently high in some locations that continued monitoring and abatement efforts are needed.

The monitoring needs and methods for SO2, NO₂ and lead is covered in the 1^st Daughter Directive (1999/30/EC), CO (and benzene) in the 2^nd Daughter Directive (2000/69/EC) and ozone in the 3^rd Daughter Directive (2002/3/EC) (see links in the web section below).

3. Discussion

About monitoring methods

The methods for monitoring these pollutants have been developed and refined over many years. There are several well-developed methods that can be used. For the gases SO₂, NO₂ and ozone, the averaging times of the limit values (from an hour to one calendar year) implies that, in general, automatic methods are needed, which register the concentrations continually. The instruments have sensors that provide concentration values every few seconds, which are treated internally in the instrument to provide average values for an hour, or shorter or longer periods.

Lead is contained mainly in suspended particles, and methods deal only with the lead in particulate matter. The limit value for lead prescribes only an averaging time of one year. Methods for lead are based upon sampling of the air/particles through filters, and subsequent analysis in a laboratory.

Available methods:

The “Position Papers” worked out by EC Working Groups as a preparation for the Air Quality (AQ) Directives contain useful sections summarising measurement and monitoring methods, see the web links immediately below:

· SO₂:http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_so2.pdf

· NO₂: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_no2.pdf

· Ozone:http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/documents/pos_paper.pdf

· Lead: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_pb.pdf

· CO: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_co.pdf

Reference methods

· The following methods are prescribed in the AQ Directives as reference methods for SO₂, NO₂, ozone and lead measurements in Europe:

· SO₂: CEN EN 14212:2005 Ambient air quality - Standard method for the measurement of the concentration of sulphur dioxide by ultraviolet fluorescence.

· NO₂: CEN EN 14211:2005 Ambient air quality - Standard method for the determination of the concentration of nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide by chemiluminescence.

· Ozone: CEN EN 14625:2005 Ambient air quality – Standard method for the determination of ozone in ambient by means of ultraviolet photometric method.

· CO: CEN EN 14626:2005 Ambient air quality – Standard method for the determination of CO in ambient air by Non-dispersive Infra-Red method (NDIR).

· Lead: Sampling¹⁾:

o Before 2005/2010: Filter method according to Directive 82/884/EEC

o After 2005/2010: Filter method as for PM₁₀ sampling, according to EN 12341 standard.

o Analysis: Atomic absorption spectrometry method or ICP-MS method (CEN standard Draft prEN 14902, of October 2004).

The method of Directive 82/884/EEC applies to measurements to comply with this directive carried out until 2005 (until 2010 for areas in the immediate vicinity of some specific industrial sources). After this time, the method of the EN12341 standard applies (please see Directives 82/884/EEC and 1999/30/EC for details).

Determination of equivalence of other instruments and methods

The procedure for determining whether a candidate method is equivalent to the reference method is described in http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/equivalence_report_final.pdf

Quality control of monitoring data

Annex VIII of the 1^st and 3^rd Daughter Directives (see web links below) specify the required accuracy of measurement data, as well as the minimum data capture (parts of the year the measurement data must be available from a monitoring station). These requirements are laid down as a guide to what quality-control and –assurance (QA/QC) programmes that monitoring network operators need to follow to comply with the quality objectives. QA/QC procedures are dealt with in the Topic How to secure the quality of the monitoring data? Quality assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) systems and procedures..

Minimum number and location of monitoring stations in a Member State, according to the AQ Directives

Annex VII of the 1^st Daughter Directive (DD), for SO₂, NO₂ and lead, and the 3^rd DD, for ozone (see web links below), as well as Annex V of the 2^nd DD for CO, state the requirements to what type of areas (zones) should be monitored, and the minimum number of sampling stations as a function of the population in an agglomeration or zone. For NO₂ and CO, in zones where the upper assessment threshold is exceeded and there should be more than 1 station, there should be at least one urban background and one traffic-oriented station.

The determination of which zones shall have monitoring stations is generally done through the activities of the “Preliminary Assessment” that the Member State shall carry out, in accordance with the Directive on ambient air quality assessment and management (the Framework Directive) (96/62/EC) (see web link below).

Location of sampling points, and exposure related monitoring

Annex VI of the 1^st DD and the 3^rd DD (for ozone), and Annex IV of the 2^nd DD (for CO) presents considerations that shall apply regarding the selection of fixed point measurements. The annexes describe macroscale setting and microscale setting considerations, both for health- and ecosystems-protection related stations.

Stations directed at human health protection should be located such that they provide data on areas representing typical or maximum concentrations that the population in the area is likely to be exposed to, directly or indirectly. This exposure should occur for a period which is a significant part of the averaging period of the limit value. Thus, it is prescribed that the monitoring should be exposure related.

This means simply that stations directed for health protection should be located where people are living or frequenting, and that the period during which they are likely to be exposed in that area is comparable to the averaging time of the limit value. For SO₂, NO₂, CO and ozone, the averaging times of the limit values are either 1 hour, 8 hours (ozone and CO), 24 hours (SO₂), or one calendar year (for SO₂ and NO₂). So, monitoring stations for SO₂, NO₂, CO and ozone should be positioned either in residential areas where people are potentially exposed throughout the whole year or indeed during any 1/8/24-hour period, or they should be in “hot-spot” areas where people are likely to be exposed over a significant part of any 1/8/24-hour period. For NO₂ and CO, this could be residences very close to roads with high traffic, while for SO₂ it could be in areas close to industrial sources with large SO₂ emissions. For ozone, potential hot-spots are in residential areas downwind of large urban areas where photochemical reactions are likely to occur, while ozone concentrations are likely to be low in areas close to local emissions from traffic sources.

Areas/locations where people or ecosystems are not likely to be exposed over a significant part of a limit value averaging period should NOT be considered for monitoring.

For lead where only annual average exposure applies, only residential areas should be considered for monitoring.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The proper monitoring of air pollutants like the ones considered in this topic description requires knowledge of and experience with the methods to be used, of considerations for monitoring network design, as well as of needed additional resources, such as needed laboratory support, and of quality control and assurance procedures.

This knowledge and experience must be embedded within the local or other authority or institution responsible for the monitoring.

5. Examples / Further Reading

SO2, NO2, O3 AND LEAD (Pb) Monitoring in the Venice-Mestre Air Quality Network

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

• Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC, OJ L 296, November 21, 1996 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett
• First daughter Directive 1999/30/EC on SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀ and Lead: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31999L0030&model=guichett
• Second Daughter Directive on CO and benzene: http://www.europa.eu.int/cgi-bin/eur-lex/udl.pl?COLLECTION=lif&SERVICE=eurlex&REQUEST=Seek-Deliver&GUILANGUAGE=en&LANGUAGE=en&DOCID=300L0069

· Third Daughter Directive 2002/3/EC on ozone: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_067/l_06720020309en00140030.pdf

· Demonstration of equivalence of ambient air monitoring methods - Draft version for external comments”, Report by an EC Working group on Guidance for the Demonstration of Equivalence: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/equivalence_report_final.pdf

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

PM₁₀ is the fraction of airborne (suspended) particulate matter which contains particles of diameter¹ less than 10 μm. Airborne particles have a large range of diameters, from nano-particles and ultrafine particles (diameters less then 0.1 μm) to the very large particles with diameters up towards 100 μm. Such large particles are suspended in air only a short time after their release (they fall out to the ground because of their mass. Even larger particles are not considered as airborne particles at all). PM₁₀ includes all particles, of different sizes and types, which are relevant for health effects. Thus, PM₁₀ is the fraction which is regulated presently by the EU Air Quality (AQ) Directives. Sub-fraction of PM₁₀ of smaller diameters, notably PM_2.5 (diameter less than 2.5 μm), or even smaller size fractions (e.g. PM_0.1, less than 0.1 μm) are presently considered to be more relevant for health effects than particles above 2.5 μm. PM_2.5 is, to some extent, regulated by the AQ Directives already, and more attention will be given to PM_2.5, and possibly even smaller fractions, in the future.

The 1^st AQ Daughter Directive prescribes the extent to which Member States should measure PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, as well as the methods to be used.

3. Discussion

About PM mass monitoring methods

There are several methods for measuring the concentration of airborne PM mass. Methods have been developed over decades, and they have been improved in their sophistication. The basic technique is to pull a known volume of air through a filter, and weigh the filter under controlled conditions before and after the sampling. An important part of such type of PM instrument is the air/particle intake device, which separates the particles that should be measured (i.e. particles of diameter less than 10 μm, or particles less than 2.5 um) from the larger ones. Different types and makes of inlet separators have different separation performance.

This method is the basis for the Reference method for PM₁₀ measurement described in the Directive, which actually specifies the actual instruments (products) which are accepted. The reason for the need to specify the instrument makes in the reference method is that the combination of air intake and filtering unit design defines the PM sample which is actually collected for weighing, and for various instrument designs/makes, the PM sample will differ. Thus, to accept all instrument makes of a certain type as reference method without testing, would introduce an uncontrollable variation results from reference PM instruments. The pragmatic solution was to select a certain small number of instruments as reference samplers. Other filtering type methods can also be used, but the user has to show that they are equivalent to the reference instruments, within certain prescribed level of accuracy.

Automatic instruments which are now available measure PM concentrations continuously, providing hourly values, while filtering methods generally provide 24-hour averages. These are used extensively in monitoring networks in Europe. Through experience and research is it clear that such instruments most often give significantly lower concentrations than filtering methods. Also the automatic methods are based on collection of the particles on filters, and various sensing techniques determine indirectly the mass of the PM. The filters are kept at elevated temperatures in these instruments to avoid problems related to humidity, and this elevated temperature results in loss of semi-volatile PM mass (mostly ammonium nitrate and organic compounds, of which the nitrate is most often the dominating one in terms of mass losses). Automatic monitors also have to be tested for equivalency with the reference method, to be accepted for monitoring under the AQ Directives. The most often used automatic monitoring methods are the beta attenuation method and the TEOM method. These and other methods are described in the 1^st PM₁₀ Position Paper (see web link section below).

Methods in relation to the assessment and information requirements in the 1^st AQ Directive

The AQ Limit values for PM₁₀ relates to daily (24-hour) averages and annual averages. Such statistics are also required from the PM_2.5 measurements that the Member States have to set up. To assess these averages by measurements, filter methods giving 24-hour averages have sufficiently good time resolution. However, if there is a need to assess which sources give the main contributions to the measured values (This is needed when action plans for pollution reduction must be worked out), a better time resolution is generally needed, such as hourly data. Also, the Directive requires that information about PM₁₀ concentrations shall be made available to the public “as soon as possible”, especially when limit values are exceeded. This requires the use of automatic methods, since with gravimetric filter methods data are available, at the earliest, several days after the sampling.

Reference methods

PM₁₀

The following types of instruments, utilising a plane filter of certain specifications as the particle collection medium, can be assessed as being reference instruments for PM₁₀ measurements in Europe:

· medium-volume filter samplers;

· high-volume filter samplers;

· very-high-volume filter samplers (called WRAC-type samplers).

They all have to be equipped with suitable air intakes that separate the PM₁₀ fraction from the larger particles, with effectiveness according to set specifications.

This is described in CEN Standard EN 12341:1998 – “Determination of the PM₁₀ fraction of suspended particulate matter – Reference method and field test procedure to demonstrate reference equivalence of measurement methods”.

PM _2.5

A decision on reference methods for PM_2.5 determination in Europe is under development (CEN standard prEN 14907, Under approval, as of December 2004).

Determination of equivalence of other instruments and methods

The procedure for determining whether a candidate method is equivalent to the PM₁₀ reference method is described in the CEN Standard EN 12341.

The concept is that to use another instrument or method, a correction factor (CF) must be determined, so that when the data measured by a non-reference method is corrected by the CF, the resulting value is equivalent with what the reference method would give. The accepted level of uncertainty in the measurements as compared to the Reference method is prescribed in the standard. It is necessary to show that the CF is valid for area and PM₁₀ level and composition (city, region, country) where the monitoring in carried out.

A report on the use of Correction Factors for PM₁₀ determinations with various instruments in Europe has been worked out by the European Topic Centre on AQ and Climate Change (ETC/ACC) http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/ of the European Environment Agency (EEA): “Correction factors and PM₁₀ measurements”, available as a final draft report (as of December 2004).

The similar procedures for determining equivalence of PM _2.5 methods is described in the CEN standard prEN 14907.

Quality control of monitoring data

Annex VIII of the 1^st Daughter Directive (see web link below) specifies the required accuracy of measurement data, as well as the minimum data capture (parts of the year the measurement data must be available from a monitoring station). These requirements are laid down as a guide to what quality-control and –assurance (QA/QC) programmes that monitoring network operators need to follow to comply with the quality objectives.

QA/QC procedures are dealt with in the Topic How to secure the quality of the monitoring data? Quality assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) systems and procedures..

Minimum number and location of PM₁₀ monitoring stations in a Member State, according to the 1^st AQ Daughter Directive

Annex VII of the 1^st Daughter Directive (see web link below) state the requirements to what type of areas (zones) should be monitored for PM₁₀, and the minimum number of sampling stations as a function of the population in an agglomeration or zone. In zones where the upper assessment threshold is exceeded and there should be more than 1 station, there should be at least one urban background and one traffic-oriented station.

The determination of which zones shall have PM₁₀ monitoring stations is generally done through the activities of the “Preliminary Assessment” that the Member State shall carry out, in accordance with the Directive on ambient air quality assessment and management (the Framework Directive) (96/62/EC) (see web link below).

For PM_2.5, each EU Member State should operate a number of monitoring stations, the number to be determined by each State so that PM_2.5 concentrations representative for the variation of PM _2.5 within the State can be determined.

Location of sampling points, and exposure related monitoring

Annex VI of the 1^st Daughter Directive presents considerations that shall apply regarding the selection of fixed point measurements. The annex describes macroscale siting and microscale siting considerations, both for health- and ecosystems-protection related stations.

Stations directed at human health protection should be located such that they provide data on areas representing typical or maximum concentrations that the population in the area is likely to be exposed to, directly or indirectly. This exposure should occur for a period which is a significant part of the averaging period of the limit value. Thus, it is prescribed that the monitoring should be exposure related.

This means simply that health-protection directed stations should be located where people are living or frequenting, and that the period that they are likely to be exposed in the area is comparable to the averaging time of the limit value. For PM₁₀, the averaging times of the limit values are either 24 hours, or one year. So, monitoring stations for PM₁₀ should be positioned either in residential areas where people are potentially exposed throughout the whole year or indeed during any 24-hour period, or they should in “hot-spot” areas where people are likely to be exposed over a significant part of any 24-hour period. This could be residences very close to roads with high traffic, or in areas close to industrial sources with large PM emissions.

This also means that areas where exposure is likely only over shorter periods, such a one or a few hours, should not be considered for monitoring of PM₁₀.

Guidance on selection of monitoring method(s)

· The selection of which method(s) to use for PM monitoring, in response to the requirements of the Directive, is influenced by, and is in practice a trade-off, between several factors: compliance with reference method prescription, need for fast availability of data, and costs (both for purchase, maintenance and system operation).

· Reference method requirements: would be easiest to just use the reference instruments.

· Need for fast information on PM levels (faster than several days): automatic method is needed. This requires that correction factor is determined for each area in question and

· Minimisation of total costs: need to check prices. Automatic instruments are not always more costly than gravimetric filter samplers. Automatic instruments require fairly costly CF determination. Operating costs should be considered: manpower costs for field and laboratory operations; calibration needs and laboratory resources, equipment maintenance.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

High quality PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 monitoring requires more resources and experience than monitoring of the typical gaseous pollutants such as SO₂ and NO₂. Reference laboratories in most countries have acquired much experience with PM₁₀ monitoring and can give valuable advice to local authorities. It is highly recommended to seek such advice, even before purchasing instruments, if such experience is not available locally. The determination of locally valid correction factors (CF) for non-reference instruments is an important part of PM₁₀ monitoring, if the resulting data is to be accepted by the EC. Advice should be sought with experienced institutions on CFs already determined for similar areas, and on the need to do additional CF determinations.

5. Examples / Further Reading

PM10 Monitoring and Intercomparison with the Reference Sampler in Helsinki

http://www.fmi.fi/kuvat/FINAL_PM_report_30_1_2004.pdf

Intercomparison between the TEOM analyser and the European reference sampler for the determination of PM10 concentrations

http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/reports/cat13/0406301532_Intercomparison_report_FINAL.pdf

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC, OJ L 296, November 21, 1996 (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett (choose .pdf file)

· First daughter Directive 1999/30/EC on SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀ and Lead: http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31999L0030&model=guichett (choose .pdf file)

· EU 1^st Position Paper on PM₁₀: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_pm.pdf

· EU CAFÉ 2^nd Position Paper on Particulate Matter (2004): this is available as a Final Draft report. Contact the CAFE Secretariat, DG Environment, Brussels.

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

A EU air quality directive on heavy metals in air (Arsenic, Cadmium and Nickel) is being developed. A proposal for this forthcoming 4^th Daughter Directive exists (see web link section below).

The most well known heavy metal in terms of air pollution, lead, is covered in the parallel template How to measure SO2, NO2, ozone, CO and lead?.

3. Discussion

This discussion is focused on heavy metals in the atmosphere. However to fully assess the environmental risk from these compounds, research has also to be expanded in soil and water. There are few available data for most of heavy metals in the atmosphere.

The main sources of arsenic, cadmium and nickel are the stationary industrial combustion processes, (such as the iron and steel industry and the non-ferrous metal industry), transport and other mobile machinery.

In the northern Hemisphere, anthropogenic emissions have increased the background concentrations of mercury in air by a factor of 2-3 since before industrialisation. More than half of the anthropogenic emissions are generated during the combustion of coal in utility, industrial and residential boilers.

Atmospheric mercury exists mainly in the form of elemental mercury vapour (Hg⁰) (90 to 99%), particle bound mercury (< 5%) and gaseous divalent mercury (e.g. HgCl₂) (<5%). There is no standard method in Europe for assessing the levels of mercury (and its compounds) in ambient air and precipitation.

The position papers which have been produced (see web link section below) as a basis for the development of an AQ directive on heavy metals, gives assessments of the HM in air situation in Europe presently, and cover sources and risk assessments, measurement methods and network considerations.

A CEN standard is being developed on the measurement of As, Cd and Ni (CEN draft standard prEN 14902.

Briefly about measurement methods

Arsenic, cadmium, nickel

Until the upcoming CEN standard will be available, the Working Group of EC experts recommends using a provisional reference method. This method would include sampling for PM₁₀ as described in CEN standard EN 12341, complete digestion, and atomic absorption spectrometry for analysis. The Member States can use any other method, which can be demonstrated to be equivalent.

Mercury

In the atmosphere, the main three forms of Hg are: elemental Hg vapour (Hg⁰), Reactive Gaseous Mercury (RGM) and Total Particulate Mercury (TPM). Of these three forms, only Hg⁰ has been tentatively identified with spectroscopic methods while the other two are operationally defined species, i.e. their chemical and physical structure cannot be exactly identified by experimental methods but are instead characterised by their properties and capability to be collected by different sampling equipment.

Sampling and analysis of atmospheric Hg is often made as TGM (Total Gaseous Mercury), which is mainly composed of elemental Hg vapour with minor fractions of other volatile species. In the last few years, new automated and manual methods have been developed to measure TGM.

A major conclusion from researchers investigation on the available methods for Hg was that ambient levels of TGM could be measured with relatively high accuracy whereas TPM and especially RGM are more complex.

Quality control of monitoring data

Annex VIII of the 1^st and 3^rd Daughter Directives (see web links below) specifiy the required accuracy of measurement data, as well as the minimum data capture (parts of the year the measurement data must be available from a monitoring station). These requirements are laid down as a guide to what quality-control and –assurance (QA/QC) programmes that monitoring network operators need to follow to comply with the quality objectives. QA/QC procedures are dealt with in the Topic template How to secure the quality of the monitoring data? Quality assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) systems and procedures..

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The proper monitoring of air pollutants like the ones considered in this template requires knowledge of and experience with the methods to be used, of considerations for monitoring network design, as well as of needed additional resources, such as needed laboratory support, and of quality control and assurance procedures.

This knowledge and experience must be embedded within the local or other authority or institution responsible for the monitoring.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

• Position paper on Pb:http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_pb.pdf

• Position paper on As-Cd-Ni: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_as_cd_ni.pdf

• Position paper on Hg:http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_mercury_xsum.pdf

• Technical report No 11, Guidance report on preliminary assessment under EC air quality directives: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en/tab_content_RLR

• Technical guidance documents: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/laqm/guidance/pdf/laqm-tg03.pdf

• Proposal for a EU Air Quality Directive for arsenic, cadmium, nickel and PAH in air: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/pdf/2003/com2003_0423en01.pdf

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The 2^nd EU Air Quality Daughter Directive deals with CO and benzene (see web link section below). Benzene is a carcinogenic compound, and the major source of benzene in air in urban areas is from gasoline, which contains a certain amount of benzene. The benzene source is partly from vehicle exhaust, partly from the handling of gasoline in pumping stations. By 1 January 2000, the maximum content of benzene in gasoline fuel in Europe was limited to 1% (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1998/l_350/l_35019981228en00580067.pdf), as a result of the assessment of the risk posed by benzene in air.

3. Discussion

The Directive describes the requirements for assessment and monitoring of benzene in air.

The position paper related to benzene (see web section below) describes the assessment of benzene in air in Europe presently, sources, risks and measurement methods.

Monitoring methods are generally based on gas chromatography, with either active (pumped) or passive (diffusive) sampling and thermal or solvent desorption prior to analysis. Automated instruments with active (pumped) sampling and thermal desorption are available, which allow for quasi continuous monitoring. Advantages and disadvantages as well as typical uncertainties of the different methods are given. Pumped sampling on tubes followed by GC analysis including calibration is recommended as basis for a reference method. A detailed reference method will be worked out by CEN.

Standard measurement methods are being developed by CEN (under approval, as of December 2004):

· prEN 14662-1: Pumped sampling followed by thermal desorption and gas chromatography;

· prEN 14662-2: Pumped sampling followed by solvent desorption and gas chromatography;

· prEN14662-3: Automated pumped sampling with in situ gas chromatography;

· prEN 14662-4: Diffusive sampling followed by thermal desorption and gas chromatography;

· p2EN 14662-5: Diffusive sampling followed by solvent desorption and gas chromatography.

Brief description of methods:

On-line gas chromatographs are available either as BTX-monitors (Benzene, Toluene, Xylene), measuring benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylenes or more capable of measuring C2-C10 hydrocarbons. These instruments are based on the same principle.

Canister sampling is performed in two ways either as grab sampling or as pumped sampling. The grab sampling is carried out by opening an evacuated canister, which instantaneously fills the canister with ambient air up to ambient pressure. Alternatively, air can be pumped into the canister over time in order to obtain an integrative sample. The canisters are then brought to the laboratory where they are analysed by gas chromatography (GC).

Pumped sorbent tube sampling is performed by pumping ambient air through a tube filled with a sorbing material. The trapped benzene is removed by solvent extraction or thermal desorption followed by GC analysis.

Diffusive sampling of benzene is performed by placing benzene adsorbent in a glass or metal tube. The sampler collects benzene by diffusion (following Fick's first law) due to the gradient established between ambient air and the adsorbing material. Benzene is removed from the sampler by solvent extraction or thermal desorption and in both cases benzene is analysed by GC.

DOAS (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) is an open path.

Optical measuring technique applicable for a number of gases which includes benzene. This method has so far not been through a standardization procedure.

Quality control of monitoring data

Annex VIII of the 1^st and 3^rd Daughter Directives (see web links below) specify the required accuracy of measurement data, as well as the minimum data capture (parts of the year the measurement data must be available from a monitoring station). These requirements are laid down as a guide to what quality-control and –assurance (QA/QC) programmes that monitoring network operators need to follow to comply with the quality objectives. QA/QC procedures are dealt with in the Topic How to secure the quality of the monitoring data? Quality assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) systems and procedures..

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· The proper monitoring of air pollutants like the ones considered in this topic description requires knowledge of and experience with the methods to be used, of considerations for monitoring network design, as well as of needed additional resources, such as needed laboratory support, and of quality control and assurance procedures.

· This knowledge and experience must be embedded within the local or other authority or institution responsible for the monitoring.

5. Examples / Further Reading

How to monitor Benzene Emissions of VOCs from petrol stations - a review; 1995 to 2003.

The MacBeth Project: Passive Samplers Measurements of Benzene Levels in the City of Padua (I)

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· 2^nd Daughter Directive on CO and benzene: http://www.europa.eu.int/cgi-bin/eur-lex/udl.pl?COLLECTION=lif&SERVICE=eurlex&REQUEST=Seek-Deliver&GUILANGUAGE=en&LANGUAGE=en&DOCID=300L0069

· Position paper on benzene: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_benzene.pdf

· Technical report No 11, Guidance report on preliminary assessment under EC air quality directives: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en/tab_content_RLR

· Technical guidance documents: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/laqm/guidance/pdf/laqm-tg03.pdf and http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/index-e.htm

· Directive on quality of motor vehicle fuel, limiting the benzene contents of gasoline: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1998/l_350/l_35019981228en00580067.pdf

Last Updated

21st January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) are a large group of compounds characterized by two or more aromatic rings. The partially volatile property of some PAH makes them highly mobile throughout the different environmental matrices (air, soil and water). Though a proportion of PAH is subject to long range atmospheric transport making them a transboundary environmental problem, their impact on the urban pollution is important in terms of threats to the public health. Indeed, ambient PAH include substances which are classified by IARC as probable or possible. Carcinogens and several PAH are genotoxic as well.

As the main exposure route is via inhalation into the lungs of PAH compounds associated with airborne particles, the possibility of efficiently quantifying the impact of PAH on the health is strictly linked to the state of the measuring devices and network for the particulate matter. More in detail, benzo(a)pyrene, BaP (the widely used indicator for PAH amount) from industrial and mobile sources are associated with the PM_2.5 fraction whereas BaP from domestic sources is associated with a larger range of particle size.

From the regulatory point of view, the European Commission – DG Environment has prepared a proposal for a Directive that will cover the remaining pollutants listed in the Framework Air Quality Directive 96/62/EC, also including PAH. (1)

The directive draft has been based on the best available knowledge on the subject as summarized in the position paper on the ambient air pollution by PAH. (2)

3. Discussion

PAH pollution - state of the art

Usually, benzo(a)pyrene is used as indicator of the total PAH concentrations and in the 1990s, typical annual mean concentrations for BaP in ambient air varied:

· Between 0.1 and 1 ng/m³ in rural background areas; between 0.5 and 3 ng/m³ in urban areas (traffic sites are included at the upper part of this range) and

· Up to 30 ng/m³ in the immediate vicinity of certain industrial installations. PAH are emitted from a number of industrial, agricultural and domestic sources, major contributors being combustion of solid fuels (best estimate: 50 % of total benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) emissions), and to a much lesser extent primary aluminium production (15 % in 1990) and cookeries (5 % in 1990) .

A further source is the exhaust from road transport, i.e. from diesel engines (5 %). Important natural sources are fires and volcanoes.

Current and in progress legislation

There is at present no EU or US ambient air quality limit value for PAH compounds. Some Member States set guide or target values that are not legally binding, ranging from 0.1 to 1.3 ng/m³ for BaP. Italy has a legally enforceable ambient air quality standard of 1.0 ng BaP/m³. Sweden also has a guidance value of 2 ng/m³ for fluoranthene.

The draft Directive on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air will not impose strict air quality limits, but foresees mandatory monitoring where concentrations exceed 1 ng BaP /m³ (annual average).

As far as designing a network to monitor compliance with a potential BaP limit value is concerned, the macro-scale setting criteria described in Annex VI of Council Directive 1999/30/EC for the protection of human health are also applicable to PAH.

Focusing on urban areas, these criteria are aimed to design the network to cover the areas with the highest concentrations including industrial sites, traffic sites and sites in environments where solid fuels are used for heating.

In particular, in the case that monitoring urban hot spots, i.e. areas with high traffic density, canyon streets, and/or areas with high usage of coal or wood for domestic heating must be monitored, the sampling point should be representative of an area of at least 200 m². Furthermore, urban background measurement points should be representative of larger parts of towns (of several km² ) and should not be directly impacted by traffic, chimney stacks of domestic heating (coal, wood or oil) or any other PAH source. Appropriate sites may be: residential areas, parks, pedestrian-reserved areas, recreational areas or squares, yards of public buildings (such as city halls, schools or hospitals).

Micro-scale criteria for network positioning established for measurements of particles and benzene, in the Directives 1999/30/EC and 2000/69/EC are applicable to PAH too (height of the sampling inlet and its distance from vehicles stop or waits).

Reference sampling methods

In the absence of a CEN standardized method, the Member States are allowed to use national standard methods. All the methods involve sampling, extraction, clean-up and analysis. Sampling may be performed using either high or low-volume samplers, which may collect TSP or PM₁₀ fraction or finer fractions if available. Whilst the particulate phase is always collected, the vapour phase is only collected if a sorbent material is also located in the sampling train. Extraction and clean-up methods vary widely and analysis can be performed by flame ionization detector, mass spectrometric detector or high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· PAH are an important component of the pressure on human health in the urban environment. They will be soon the object of a legislative harmonisation between the different EU countries and stricter air quality targets are expected in the medium term.

· Measuring networks siting criteria allow the town administrators to monitor PAH by means of the same sampling points used for PM assessment. Attention must be paid on the sampling method in order to minimize material losses due to vapour phases.

5. Examples / Further Reading

PAH Monitoring in Venice-Mestre Urban Area

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air (4^th Daughter Directive): http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/pdf/2003/com2003_0423en01.pdf

· Position Paper on PAH - Prepared by the Working Group On Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for the EC – DG ENV: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/pp_pah.pdf

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Quality assurance and control (QA/QC) is an essential part of any air monitoring system. It is a series of activities designed to ensure that air quality measurements meet defined and appropriate standards of quality, with a stated level of confidence. It should be emphasized that the function of QA/QC is not to achieve the highest possible data quality.

This is an unrealistic objective, which cannot be achieved under practical resource constraints. Rather, it is a set of activities enabling the network measurements to comply with the specific Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) for the monitoring programme. In other words, QA/QC should ensure that your data are fit for purpose.

Measured data of air pollution concentrations have a questionable value, unless the “quality” of each data point (in terms of its accuracy, representativeness) is known to a certain degree. This is fully understood and described in the EC AQ Directives. The Directives specify that the organisation(s) responsible for the quality of the data be named by the Member State (the National Reference Laboratory) and that Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) are specified for each compound.

In order to fulfil the data quality requirements, each network owner/operator has to specify and implement a system for controlling and assessing the data quality (a QA/QC system).

A set of procedures must be included which deals with the operations to obtain measured air quality data and also a system developed to ensure these operational procedures are followed.

When such a system is established and followed, it is possible to specify the accuracy and other quality characteristics of the reported data.

3. Discussion

Good data quality and high data capture rates are essential if the urban network is to achieve its objectives. To ensure comparability, consistent data quality assurance/control (QA/QC) procedures should be applied throughout the network.

Good QA/QC practice covers all aspects of network operation, including systems design and site selection, equipment evaluation, site operation, maintenance and calibration, data review and ratification. The successful implementation of each component of the QA/QC scheme is essential for the success of the program/system.

The Quality system that the responsible organisation has to set up can be described here in general terms. A number of reports and texts can be consulted which describes in full detail the specifics of the quality system (see the reading list below).

The main parts of the Quality System:

· Quality assurance: the management of the activities within the system, and setting of overall objectives and criteria.

· Quality control: the procedures of the day-by-day operations and data validation.

· Quality assessment: the external validation of the implementation of the quality system.

Quality assurance should consist of, for example:

· Setting Data Quality Objectives (DQOs), such as the desired accuracy of the data produced. The AQ Directives specifies required DQOs.

· Criteria for design of monitoring network and station location. The Directives have requirements related to this.

· Criteria for selection of instruments and monitors. The Directives specify the reference methods.

· Requirements to the competence and capacity of the Reference laboratory.

Quality control should consist of:

· Procedures for field operations, calibrations, maintenance etc.

Quality assessment should include

· Procedures for regular audits, inter-calibration exercises etc.

Basic description of data quality systems have been worked out by WMO, EEA and EMEP, see the reading list below for references. An example of a description of full Quality system developed to meet the requirements of the AQ Directives is also included (for Norway, in Norwegian).

The EU Air Quality Directives (http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm) specify Data Quality Objectives (DQO) and certain data quality related requirements which should be used to guide the actual specification of QA/QC systems:

· DQOs: Requirements are set for minimum accuracy and data capture for monitoring data, as well as for modelled data and objective estimation;

· Location of monitoring stations;

· Minimum number of stations e.g. in urban networks;

· Reference monitoring methods.

The Commission organises EU wide or regional inter-laboratory comparison exercises (round robin tests, inter-laboratory exercises, spot checks in the monitoring networks) to ensure comparability of measurements at international level. The main organisation under the EC carrying out such activities is the "European Reference Laboratory of Air Pollution (ERLAP) of the EC's Joint Research Centre (JRC) Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), its Emissions and Health Unit: http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Action_2112_-AQH.66.0.html

Another useful link is to the AQUILA network, the network of National Reference Laboratories in Europe, presently headed by JRC/ERLAP: http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Units/eh/Projects/Aquila/

The QA/QC procedures of measurements must contain audits including control of the operation of monitoring equipment at the sites, maintenance and calibration in the laboratories and data control.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Although the main principles of QA/QC system design apply to most network or instrumentation types, there are often characteristic differences in their emphasis and practical implementation. It is a common oversight to place too much emphasis on laboratory-based quality assurance activities, as these are often easier to control and monitor.

· Although such QA/QC tasks are vital, particularly for sampler-based measurement programmes involving substantial laboratory analysis, considerable emphasis in any network quality system needs to be focused on the point of measurement. Mistakes or problems at the start of the measurement chain cannot be readily corrected afterwards. Sample system design and maintenance, regular site visits, audits and inter-calibrations therefore play an important role in network quality assurance.

· Another unifying feature of network quality systems is the need for effective data screening and validation. In any measurement programme -however well designed or operated- equipment malfunction, human error, power failures, interference and a variety of other disturbances may result in the collection of spurious data. To maximize data integrity and utility, therefore, these must be identified and removed before a final, definitive dataset can be generated or used.

· The design of an effective and targeted QA/QC programme is only the first step in the process of quality management. The programme needs to be fully documented and compliance with its procedures and requirements actively monitored. Monitoring programmes often evolve over time as objectives, legislation, resources or air pollution problems change. Quality assurance programmes therefore also need to be regularly reviewed, to ensure that they remain properly targeted and fit for purpose.

5. Examples / Further Reading

AQ Data Quality Requirements, Bristol case

The Quality Assurance in Air Quality Monitoring in the Turku Region

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· EMEP QA/QC manuals etc: http://www.nilu.no/projects/ccc/qa/index.htm

· The EEA EUROAIRNET Criteria report, Chapter 4.5 on QA/QC: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC12/en

· Handbook on the Quality System for air pollution data for Norway. Report No. OR 55/2002, of Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller Norway (in Norwegian).

· CEN standards for measurement and monitoring methods: http://www.cenorm.be/cenorm/index.htm, click subsequently on standards and drafts/finding draft standards/domains/environment/air quality.

· Quenda – quality of environmental data. Uncertainty calculations – an overview http://www.fmi.fi/kuvat/EnteSneek.pdf

· Data, sources of information and useful web sites: Guidelines for Air Quality, WHO, 1999: http://www.who.int/environmental_information/Air/Guidelines/Chapter5.htm

· Technical guidance document: http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/reports/lsoman/lsoman.html

· Technical report No 11, Guidance report on preliminary assessment under EC Air Quality directives:http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en/tab_content_RLR

· Technical guidance document: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/laqm/guidance/pdf/laqm-tg03.pdf

· Position papers on air pollutants: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/

· "European Reference Laboratory of Air Pollution (ERLAP) of the EC's Joint Research Centre (JRC) Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), its Emissions and Health Unit: http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Action_2112_-_AQH.66.0.html

· Another useful link is to the AQUILA network, the network of National Reference Laboratories in Europe, presently headed by JRC/ERLAP: http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/Units/eh/Projects/Aquila/

Last Updated

25th January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Last Updated

30th November 1999

1. Topic

2. Introduction

There can be various objectives behind the assessment of the air quality in urban areas and there is a variety of methods used in the assessment leading to different levels of usefulness of the results.

The methodology of urban air quality assessment (AQA) is influenced by its objectives, which can be policy-related and/or research-related. Policy-related objectives are: the comparison between ambient air pollution levels assessed in zones/agglomerations and the limit values (LVs), to quantify the exceedances; the development of cost-effective action plans to reduce air pollutants levels; the evaluation of the effectiveness of policy measures (including future projections and scenarios); the information to the public.

Research-related objectives are: providing data for health/other effects (on the vegetation and cultural heritage) studies, to implement new AQA tools (such as geo-statistical techniques, dispersion modelling, etc.).

In this topic the main emphasis is to describe structure and methods of urban air quality (AQ) Assessments with basis in the requirements set in the EU AQ Directives. The further emphasis will be on how various methods fulfil AQ assessment objectives and on the applicability and usefulness of the results from the various methods.

One of the basic requirements of the Framework Directive (http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/index.htm) is that EU Member States make AQA in their territory, using methodologies depending upon the ambient air quality levels seen relative to the AQ limit values. The process is as follows:

· A preliminary AQA is carried out for the whole territory to assess preliminary the AQ levels in the various cities/agglomerations, as well as in rural areas, relative to the limit values.

· Based on this, each Member State divides its territory into “air quality zones”, including agglomerations (urban areas with more than 250,000 inhabitants) that are suitable for assessment and management.

· In the zones, different AQA regimes come into effect dependent upon the air pollution levels (see Topic Terms in the EC Air Quality Directives: What do they mean?)

· Monitoring networks and modelling capabilities are established in the zones according to set requirements in the Daughter Directives.

· Periodical AQ assessments are then carried out, and the results reported to the Commission regularly.

· Plans and programmes for improvements in the air quality are then mandated in the zones where the limit values are exceeded (see e.g. Topic How to develop an Air Quality Action Plan ?).

The different basic “methods” of air quality assessment are:

· Monitoring of air quality levels, by means of stationary stations, mobile laboratories and diffusive sampling techniques;

· Modelling of pollutants’ concentrations and depositions;

· Combination of monitoring and modelling, called “data assimilation”, meaning that the model’s predictions can be improved when combining it with monitoring data.

In the Member States the Authority responsible to make AQA can be different (regional/national, province/county, urban/local), depending on the transposition of AQ Directives (AQD) into the national legislation. At local or urban level, the methodology adopted to perform Air Quality Assessment (AQA) depends on the level of air pollution (LV, UAT, LAT, see below) registered in the zone or agglomeration comprising the urban area and on its objectives. Sometimes the “quality” of urban AQA is affected by human, technical and economic limitations, so that only a basic level of AQA can be performed.

3. Discussion

AQA methods

The following overview (the table and figure below) shows the different AQ “assessment regimes”, how the AQA methods are related to the requirements in the Framework Directive (FWD) and how they fulfil various assessment objectives:

APC: air pollutant concentration; LV: Pollutant Limit Value; UAT and LAT: Upper and Lower Assessment Threshold.

The word “low quality” in the table means methods which are simple and often less expensive, and having less accuracy, rather than implying poor quality as such.

Further description of AQA methodologies in light of the requirements of the European Commission is given in a technical guidance report to the AQ Directives:

http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/guidanceunderairquality.pdf

Assessment by monitoring

Both traditionally, and as required by the Directives, monitoring is the first “method” to use in AQ assessments, in urban areas as on other scales. The differentiation in the Directives between high, medium and low level quality (read: “accuracy”) monitoring reflects the experience and practices acquired by the air pollution monitoring community over several decades.

· “Low quality” monitoring methods, to be used both in the preliminary assessment phase, and later when it has been demonstrated that the pollution level is low, include e.g. passive samplers, simple manual samplers taking daily average samples, etc. (see e.g. Preliminary Assessment methods report: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en ).

· High quality” monitoring methods, which are required in agglomerations and when the air pollution concentration exceeds UAT, entail automatic monitors giving hourly values or better, with near real time transfer of data, so information to the public can be given. The methods must comply with the accuracy requirements in the Directives.

· “Medium quality monitoring”, which is to be used when the air pollution concentration is between UAT and LAT, does not imply that there are some separate “medium quality” types of methods. It means rather that fewer locations may need to be monitored, and the intensity of monitoring can be less, for instance covering less of the time of the day/week/year, mobile monitoring stations can be used to a larger extent, etc.

Monitoring methods present some important topics, such as: the optimisation of the macro-sitting or network design, as well as micro-sitting parameters; stationary monitoring stations’ classification (e.g.: urban background station, traffic hot-spot station, etc.); sampling and analysis of polluted air at a particular location, including calibration techniques (reference methods, equivalent methods, Quality Control/Quality Assessment); indicative measurements such as the use of mobile laboratories and the diffusive sampling techniques; estimation of the human/economic resources needed to maintain the network’s efficiency. (See the topic descriptions in the section Air Quality Monitoring Methods.)

General references on AQ monitoring methods: see Additional Documents section below.

Assessment by modelling

Use of modelling methods is suggested under the new AQ Directives, to assess the spatial distribution of concentrations (such as iso-lines in maps) and the analysis of the causes of air pollution (by means of the emission inventories), which have to be reported for zones/agglomerations where levels exceed limit values.

Advancing from monitoring to modelling involves some important steps: the implementation of an emission inventory (see the Topic How to develop urban Emission Inventories?) and the set up of monitoring of meteorological and dispersion data, and dispersion and/or statistical. This is a major step for local authorities, in terms of additional expertise and capacity. Often the tasks involving modelling are contracted out to expert consultants.

Relevant items for modelling methods are: the type of model and its choice, which is depending on the application to be implemented; its input data requirements (meteorological data or modelling and the emission inventory); the topography of the area; the monitoring data needed for the model’s validation; using monitoring data to improve the local applicability of the model; the needed results, deriving from the various model runs, for example: evaluation of present Air Quality status; contributions from selected human/natural activities or single sources (e.g. industrial point sources, emissions from harbour’s activities, etc.); distribution of population exposure (e.g. patterns of exposure due to traffic emissions, or to industrial emissions in the nearby of an urban area); future Air Quality projections, to evaluate effectiveness of policies.

General references on AQ modelling and models:

· http://reports.eea.eu.int/92-9167-028-6/en/tab_abstract_RLR

· http://www.epa.gov/scram001

· http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/aqe&m.htm

· http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/MDS/index_html

· http://www.harmo.org/

· http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/centre/model.html

· http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/activities/activities.htm

· Note by the CAFE-Working Group on Implementation, Nr. 2003/3, Subject: “Air Quality assessment around point sources”): Air Quality assessment around point sources (pdf 20K)

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

The initial identification of the levels of pollution (Preliminary AQA) is a fundamental step to determine what the requirements for assessment in the individual zones are, as given in the AQ Directives. (See the Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment under EC Air Quality Directives, web-link below). After that, the “quality” of the following AQA depends on human, technical and economic resources available to the experts in the field of air quality assessment within governmental or local authorities, and their capacity to out-source various assessment tasks. Technical Guidance is given by the EU to choose the most suitable method to perform it (see web-links below). The performance of AQA can be regarded as a gradual process that can be improved in parallel with the acquirement of more sophisticated tools and techniques to assess air quality (i.e. statistical and mathematical modelling). However, local authorities have the responsibility to perform assessments according to the requirements in the AQ Directives.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models in HEAVEN integrated AQMS system in Rome

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Background references on AQA structure/methods:

· Framework Directive 96/62/EC, Daughter Directives 1999/30/EC, 2000/69/EC and 2002/3/EC: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/index.htm;

· Guidance report on preliminary assessment under EC air quality directives: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC11a/en;

· Overview of Methods and Results of the Preliminary Assessment of Air Quality in Europe under Directives 96/62/EC and 1999/30/EC:http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/reportpreliminaryasses.pdf

· Technical guidance on how to assess air quality under the new EU air quality directives, in particular the Framework Directive 96/62/EC and the first Daughter Directive 1999/30/EC (with examples):http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/guidanceunderairquality.pdf

· World Bank, Urban air quality management strategy in Asia - guidebook: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS_IBank_Servlet?stype=AllWords&all=urbair&ptype=sSrch&pcont=results&sortby=D&sortcat=D&x=13&y=10;

· UK 2003 Guidance for Air Quality Management (Policy Guidance LAQM.PG(03) and Technical Guidance LAQM.TG(03)): http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/centre/

Background references related to AQA by monitoring methods

· US EPA Ambient AQ Monitoring Information Centre: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/

· Jon Bower: Ambient Air Quality Monitoring. In Air Quality management, Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, Monograph 8 (Eds: R.E. Hester and R.M. Harrison); The Royal Society of Chemistry. Herts, UK.

· Monitoring Ambient Air Quality for Health Impact Assessment; WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 85.

· Criteria for EUROAIRNET - The EEA Air Quality Monitoring and Information Network, Technical report No 12: http://reports.eea.eu.int/TEC12/en/tab_content_RLR;

· Exchange of Information (EoI) Decision and Guidance note:

· Council Decision 97/101/EC.

· Commision Decision 2001/752/EC

· Guidance report on the Annexes to Decision 97/101/EC (pdf 930K)

· http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/working_groups/01121718guidanceoverview.pdf and http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/pdf/steering_technical_group/item6_eolreview.pdf;

· CEN standards: http://www.cenorm.be/catweb/cwsen.htm

Background references on modelling methods

· European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change, Topic Centre of European Environment Agency, Model Documentation System (MDS): http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/mds.html;

· EUROTRAC 2: GENEMIS Project: http://www.ier.uni-stuttgart.de/public/de/organisation/abt/tfu/projekte/genemis/

Examples of assessment from monitoring, European scale

· European scale: European Environmental Agency, Air Quality in Europe Reports 1999, 2000: Air quality in Europe: state and trends 1990-99

· Air pollution in Europe 1990-2000

· European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change, Topic Centre of European Environment Agency, European Air Quality in 1998, Final Report: http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/reports/EoI_European_Air_Quality_In_1998_FinalReport

Examples of assessment from modelling

Regional/National scale: EMEP (Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution): http://www.emep.int/ and RAINS: http://www.iiasa.ac.at/rains/Rains-online.html?sb=8

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The air pollution concentrations in an urban area are the combined result from emissions within the urban area itself, and the air pollution coming from outside. The contribution from outside – the extra-urban contribution – is the result of man-made emissions from near-by activities, from neighbouring cities, as well as the combined effect of emissions from upwind areas sometimes up to several thousand km away. Even contributions from the hemispheric/global scale may be important, which is the case for instance for ozone. Natural pollutants may also be important, such as for particulate matter (e.g. Saharan dust, marine aerosols-"sea spray") and for ozone (influx of stratospheric ozone into the troposphere and boundary layer).

The extra-urban (often called "regional") pollution contribution is particularly important for particulate matter PM (PM_2.5, PM₁₀) and for ozone. The high regional PM and ozone is mainly a result of secondary particle formation from precursor gases (for PM: mainly SO₂, NO_X, NH₃ and VOC; for ozone: mainly NO_X and VOC). Considerable secondary PM and ozone formation is due to extensive precursor gas emissions in large upwind areas with air flow transport over several hours and more, such as between European regions. During the air transport certain meteorological conditions must prevail, such as strong sunshine for ozone formation, and no precipitation.

Apart from this contribution from secondary formation of pollution, large sources/emitters/industrial areas of primary pollutants (primary PM, NO_X, etc.) quite near, but outside the urban area may, when it is upwind, of course contribute significantly to the urban concentrations.

The importance of the extra-urban (regional) contribution is demonstrated in Figure 1. The figure shows statistics from the data in AirBase http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/airbase.html, the air pollutant data base held by the European Topic Centre for Air Quality and Climate Change (ETC/ACC) for the European Environment Agency (EEA) http://org.eea.eu.int/. AirBase contains data from several hundreds of monitoring stations across Europe, of different types (Rural, Urban, Traffic, etc.). The figure represents data for the year 2000 and shows, for each compound (NO₂, PM₁₀, Ozone) the average, and 10^th and 90^th percentile of concentrations for all of each of the station types (rural, urban, traffic).

Figure 1: Data in AirBase on pollutant concentrations at monitoring stations in Europe, 2000, showing the typical concentrations at rural, urban and traffic stations, annual average and short-term percentiles (LV: limit value; TV: target value; NO₂ max19: 19^th highest hour in a year; PM₁₀ max36: 36^th highest day in a year; Ozone max26: 26^th highest daily max 8-hour average)..

Note that the rural, urban background and traffic stations do not in general represent adjacent areas (that is, not for all cities there is a near-by rural station), although in many cases this is true. Still, the large number of stations implies that the figures give a good indication of the average rural, urban and traffic concentrations in Europe.

The information in the figure can be summarised as follows:

For NO₂, the average rural background concentrations in Europe are typically 50-60% of the average urban concentrations. For PM₁₀, the rural contribution is about 90%! For ozone, the figure demonstrates the well-known effect that the urban concentrations are typically lower than the rural ones, since ozone is most often reduced due to chemical reaction with NO inside the city, which produces NO₂.

In order to work effectively on the air pollution situation in the city, it is thus obviously important for local authorities and air pollution control departments to know how to assess the extra-urban contribution and to consider the possibilities to abate the extra-urban contribution (by contacting/working with regional/national authorities).

3. Discussion

How to assess the extra-urban contribution

By monitoring:

Ideally the monitoring network of an urban area should include stations outside the urban area, located such that the influx of air pollution from outside can be determined. Since the extra-urban contribution varies considerably with the season, the monitoring at such stations should be year-round.

The number of extra-urban stations, and their location, obviously depends on the source situation near-by, and the geographical location relative to large-scale regional background, such as whether the high regional background contributions would come predominantly from one or several geographical sectors.

The following considerations would be important regarding extra-urban stations:

· The location(s) must be upwind of the urban area itself, when looking towards the main sector(s) of influx of regional pollution, and outside the populated areas of the city itself;

· If there are major (industrial or urban) source areas nearby, the location of the station(s) should reflect where the major impact from the sources is expected. To determine this, dispersion modelling exercises if often needed. However, if the distance to the source area is more than 10 km, the background station can be located similar as indicated above. If the distance is shorter, and there are industrial stacks, dispersion modelling would be recommended to find the areas of maximum impact from the sources.

· For regional air pollution, compounds to be covered should be NO₂, PM and ozone.

· For nearby source areas, relevant compounds from the sources should be covered.

The Guidance to the Annexes of the Exchange of Information Decision give some guidance as to location of so-called "near-city" monitoring stations, Commision Decision 2001/752/EC Guidance report on the Annexes to Decision 97/101/EC (choose the pdf files).

By modelling:

Regional chemistry transport models can be used to help determine the extra-urban contribution to an urban area. Such models, e.g. EMEP http://www.emep.int/index_mscw.html, CHIMERE http://euler.lmd.polytechnique.fr/chimere/ and MATCH http://www.smhi.se/ use grid resolutions from 10 – 100 km and can determine the transport and chemistry of many pollutants. The calculations are based on meteorological input data, usually taken from global or regional models, e.g. ECMWF http://www.ecmwf.int//, HIRLAM http://hirlam.knmi.nl/ and griddled emission data, e.g. EMEP http://webdab.emep.int/. As a result, the quality of the regional model results will be dependent on both these input factors. Such models are complicated to run and not readily accessible for general use, but results from some of these models are available, e.g. EMEP http://www.emep.int/Model_data/model_data.html and CHIMERE http://euler.lmd.polytechnique.fr/chimere/output.200108/index.html.

In-country institutions carrying out regional air pollution modelling could also be contacted when there is a need for modelling of the regional air pollution outside your city.

Regional models can be used directly to estimate extra-urban contributions, but they are also useful when helping to plan the placement of background stations and to access the geographic regions and source sectors responsible for the measured extra-urban contribution.

How to abate the extra-urban contribution

In the case of large-scale regional air pollution affecting the urban area, the abatement of this "source" would be a European responsibility, which is handled by the UN-ECE Conventions on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and by the Commission.

In case of nearby source areas with considerable influence on the urban area under consideration, the "zones" which have been established by each Member State under the EU Air Quality Directives (see e.g. the Topics Terms in the EC Air Quality Directives: What do they mean? and How to do Urban AQ assessments? Overview of structure and methods) should, in principle, already include all nearby emission areas affecting urban areas. They should be regarded as "Air Quality management zones" selected such as to make air pollution abatement in polluted areas as effective and integrated as possible.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

It is clear that the extra-urban air pollution concentrations often give significant and sometimes dominating contributions to the urban air pollution levels. It is very important for local authorities to deal with this contribution, both to assess its importance and variations, and to try to manage it in terms of abatement, then in a broader (national or European) context.

The size and variations in the contribution must be assessed either by monitoring station(s), located such that they can determine the extra-urban contribution, and/or by using modelling techniques.

5. Examples / Further Reading

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Airbase contains (2002 data) more than 300 rural SO₂ and NO₂ stations, and about 160 rural PM₁₀ stations. The stations, their location, and monitoring data can be viewed using the AirView tool: http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/airview.html

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The first Daughter Directive (1999/30/EC) obliges Member States to ensure that up-to-date information on ambient concentrations of air pollutants is routinely made available to the public, by means, for example, of broadcast media, press, information screens or computer-network services. Information on ambient concentrations should be updated on a daily or hourly basis depending on the pollutant. Such information shall, at least, indicate any exceeding of the concentrations in the limit values and alert thresholds over the corresponding averaging periods. It should also provide a short assessment in relation to limit values and alert thresholds and appropriate information regarding effects on health. Air quality indicators and indices could be used for the Directive’s purpose to make the information made available to the public clear, comprehensible and accessible. The European Environmental Agency (EEA)’s definition of “indicator” is “an observed value representative of a phenomenon to study. In general, indicators quantify information by aggregating different and multiple data. The resulting information is therefore synthesised. In short, indicators simplify information that can help to reveal complex phenomenon”. Air quality indicators are parameters, or values derived from parameters, describing the driving forces and the pressures on the atmospheric environment, its state and its impact on human beings, ecosystems and materials and the responses steering that system. An indicator has gone through a selection and/or aggregation process to enable it to steer action.

“Index” usually means a composite indicator, where several compounds are seen together, and their levels (relative to limit values, or to WHO thresholds, etc.) are combined into one number, to synthesise the information to be reported to the public.

3. Discussion

Air quality indicators are used to report on the state of outdoor air quality and its potential effects on human health and the environment, how air quality is changing over time (e.g. trends in lead levels following the introduction of unleaded petrol), the difference between air quality in different areas, the factors influencing those differences and whether the policies adopted are improving air quality. The European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (ETC-ACC) has currently developed and used a huge set of indicators/sub-indicators for air pollution related issues. These indicators have been compiled over the past years for specific reports and fact sheets but are increasingly linked and harmonised. This core set of indicators will form part of a wider set of indicators that will be used, within EEA reports and services, to inform policy makers and the public on key European environmental problems. There are four types of indicators (analysis of the indicators can be found in detailed fact sheets on the EEA’s web site, see below). Pressure indicators are quantifying the stresses in the form of direct pressures, such as air emissions; state indicators describe the environmental conditions of ambient air; impact indicators are identifying and quantifying the changes in the ecosystems and human health, based on the conditions of the atmospheric environment; and response indicators describe the actions taken to improve the quality of the atmospheric environment. Following ETC-ACC’s guidelines, the core set-pressure indicators are: emissions of acidifying pollutants; emissions of ozone precursors; emissions of primary and secondary PM₁₀, emissions of SO₂, NO_X, NMVOC, NH₃, heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (total and by sector). The core set-state indicators are: exceedance of critical load for total acidity and nutrients; exposure of agricultural crops and forests to ozone; exceedance of health- related limited values for “FWD” pollutants in urban areas (O₃, PM₁₀, NO₂/NO_X, SO₂, CO, benzene and Pb).

Air quality index is a scale usually developed by the national authority to measure how much pollution is in the air and for reporting daily air quality. It tells you how clean or polluted your air is, and what associated health concerns you should be aware of. Usually, an air quality index focuses on health effects that can happen within a few hours or days after breathing polluted air for the major air pollutants regulated by the legislation. Air quality data are derived from monitoring stations and “translated” in the specific index’s scale. A specific colour must be assigned to each air quality category, delimited by values of concentration corresponding to “legislative” limit values, or health effects-associated levels, etc. One of the most important examples of air quality index is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s “AQI”, where the red colour means “unhealthy” conditions, while the purple colour means “very unhealthy” conditions. This colour scheme can help to quickly determine if air pollutants are reaching unhealthy levels in the urban area and in its surroundings.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· While air quality indicators help summarising a huge amount of information, deriving from emission data, measures of pollutants, etc. into the so-called DPSIR assessment framework (Driving forces, Pressures, State of the environment, Impacts, and societal Responses) that covers the most important aspects of the socio-economic and environment framework, air quality indices are in general used to describe the “present” (daily or even hourly) state of air quality, giving to the public an updated and more comprehensible information on the state of air quality in urban areas (and not only).

· In the urban “perspective” air quality indicators can be useful tools in air quality assessment, to describe the importance of pressures on urban air quality and to derive the trend of air pollution over time. Air quality indices can help communicating air quality-related information to the public, as well as to environmental organisations, consumer organisations, organisations representing the interests of sensitive populations and other relevant health-care bodies.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Air quality index review in some European and USA

Air Quality Index - UK

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Background references on Air Quality Indicators

· ETC/ACC and EEA’s indicators (fact sheets included): http://ims.eionet.eu.int/Topics/AP/indicators/

· WHO/EEA Health Related Indicators of Air Quality: http://org.eea.eu.int/documents/berlin/index.html

Background references on Air Quality Indices

· U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Quality Index (AQI): http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqibroch/

Examples of Air Quality Indicators

· Air quality Indicators in the City of Stockholm (S): http://www.slb.mf.stockholm.se/

Examples of Air Quality Indices

· Air pollution index in London (UK): http://www.erg.kcl.ac.uk/london/asp/PublicHome.asp?

· Air quality index in Paris (F), ATMO: http://www.airparif.asso.fr/english/indices/atmo.htm

· European Project EMMA (Integrated Environmental Monitoring, Forecasting and Warning Systems in Metropolitan Areas): http://vaxc.middlesex.ac.uk/emma/index.html

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

General

Chemical compounds which create "air pollution" because of their toxicity and other properties that cause effects on human health and the environment, are released – emitted - into the atmosphere from man-made (anthropogenic) and natural sources. These substances are the cause of many current and potential environmental problems, including acidification, air quality degradation, global warming/climate change, damage and soiling of buildings and other structures, stratospheric ozone depletion, human and ecosystem exposure to hazardous substances.

To be able to assess the air pollution problems, and to work effectively towards their management and reduction, one of the first and main prerequisites is to have quantitative information about the sources and the amount and types of emitted compounds.

There is a multitude of types of sources of atmospheric emissions and a large number (often millions) of each type, for example anthropogenic sources such as power plants, refineries, incinerators, industrial plants and processes, domestic households, offices and public buildings, cars and other vehicles, fossil fuel extraction and production sites, animals and humans, and natural sources such as trees and other vegetation, agricultural and fertilised land, biological decay areas, deserts, oceans.

Emissions to air arise from human activities and from natural processes and information on pollutant emissions is usually compiled in emission inventories. These are complete and exhaustive lists of emission sources and air pollutants referred to specific geographical areas in defined periods of time. They contain data on air emissions classified by:

· Economic activity;

· Land unit (national, regional, local level);

· Unit of time (annual, seasonal, weekly, daily, hourly) and

· Fuel consumption (when relevant).

Emission inventories provide comprehensive information on emission sources and emission fluxes in the area under consideration and are important tools to describe the emission situation and eventually to manage air quality. Direct measurements of air emissions are infrequent and therefore emissions are usually estimated with the help of emission factors applied to statistics on human activities.

Emission factors (EFs) are the estimated average emission rate of a given pollutant for a given source, relative to units of activity.

Emission surveys and inventories are used in air quality management mainly in two ways:

· The survey/inventory shows which types of, and which individual sources are responsible for most of the emissions of each substance, as a basis for the first step in reducing the air pollution problem. Information regarding the location of the sources relative to the receptors affected (population, ecosystems) as well as the height of the emissions (stack height, etc.) needs to be taken into account also in this first step.

· The inventory is used as input to dispersion models, which calculates the contributions to the air pollution concentrations from each source/source type. For this use, exact information on source locations, stack height and other emission data, such as time variation of the emission, is needed.

Urban emissions inventories

In an urban area, these two types of application of the emissions inventory are both useful. For the urban emission inventory to be as useful as possible, it is important that the spatial (location) and temporal (time variation) distribution of the sources and their emissions is as accurate and have as high resolution as possible.

It is not possible to measure emissions from all of the individual examples of the sources in an urban area, nor indeed, in the short term, from all the different source types. In practice, atmospheric emissions are estimated on the basis of measurements made at selected or representative samples of the (main) sources and source types, and in addition by use statistics regarding the number of sources and their consumption of fuel/raw material/production, which are combined with emission factors (see further below).

Top-down and bottom-up inventories

A top-down inventory is characterised by lack of detailed information about location and emissions from individual sources. When fuel consumption, production, vehicle and other activity statistics is available, a top-down inventory can be constructed, using the statistics and emission factors. Such inventories usually have only coarse spatial temporal resolution. In a first phase, a top-down inventory can be produced with relatively little effort, to give an overview of the emissions, the most important sources and categories, etc.

The bottom-up inventory is constructed from the more detailed knowledge of source types and locations, and their specific emissions or consumption data. This is the type of inventory which is at present usually compiled, since it gives a much better basis for air quality management.

Software tools are available for efficient work to produce bottom-up emission inventories.

3. Discussion

The basic model for an emission estimate is the product of (at least) two variables, for example:

· An activity statistic and a typical average emission factor for the activity, or

· An emission measurement over a period of time and the number of such periods emissions occurred in the required estimation period.

For example, to estimate annual emissions of sulphur dioxide in tonnes per year from a power plant oil-powered you should use, either:

· Annual fuel consumption (in tonnes fuel/year) and an emission factor (in tonnes SO₂ emitted/tonne fuel consumed), or

· Measured SO₂ emissions (in grams per hour) and number of operating hours per year.

Another example is the estimation of e.g. NOx emissions from vehicles in a city. The basic emission factor here is the NOx amount emitted per km driven, which is then multiplied by average driving distance per year, for the vehicles in a city/country, and the number of registered/counted vehicles.

In practice, the calculations tend to be more complicated but the principles remain the same.

Emission estimates are collected together into inventories or databases which usually also contain supporting data on, for example: the locations of the sources of emissions; emission measurements where available; emission factors; capacity, production or activity rates in the various source sectors; operating conditions; methods of measurement or estimation, etc.

Emission inventories usually contain data on three categories of sources, namely point, area and line. This separation is important, for instance since these source categories are treated differently in dispersion models. The inventories should also contain geographical information so that emissions can be separated on area basis – e.g. region, country, province, urban air shed, city, department, neighbourhood, etc.

Point sources - emission estimates are provided on an individual plant or emission outlet (usually large), usually in conjunction with data on location, capacity or throughput, operating conditions etc.

Area sources - smaller or more diffuse sources of pollution are provided on an area basis either for administrative areas, such as counties, regions etc, or for regular grids (for example the EMEP 50x50 km grid). Such sources are e.g. indoor heating (offices, domestic), small-scale fuel consumption for various activities/workshops etc., fuel consumption for road traffic which is not accounted for by the traffic count data which are usually available just for the main road network.

Line sources - in some inventories, vehicle emissions from road transport are provided for sections along the road system in a city or a country, based upon traffic data, and vehicle and technology type data. In country-wise inventories, also railway-track, rivers and sea-lane could be considered as line sources.

Emission inventories usually provide:

· The distribution of emissions in relation to relevant technologies and socio-economic sectors;

· The spatial distribution of emissions and

· Trends in emissions over time.

When looking at pollutant dispersion and air quality modelling in urban areas it is necessary to have an accurate and high quality description of the emission sources in terms of quantity and dynamic behaviour (especially on traffic sources). This requires an emission inventory with a high resolution in space and time. For example, in traffic and mobility planning in urban areas, the emission inventory must be set up by a coherent and detailed description, at least, of the road traffic distribution (see the Topics The role and prerequisites for Transport Emission Models in Urban Planning and Transport emission models at regional scale.).

Suggested background and descriptive sources

Useful and informative descriptive texts regarding emission inventories and their compilation are provided by the following references:

· By Rainer Friedrich and Uwe-Bernd Schwarz, in Urban Air Pollution – European Aspects, Chapter 6: Emission Inventories (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1998, edited by Jes Fenger, Ole Hertel and Finn Palmgren)

· By Peter J. Sturm, in Air Quality in Cities (Final Report of the Eurotrac-2 Saturn Subproject), Chapter 3: Air Pollutant Emissions in Cities: http://aix.meng.auth.gr/saturn/finalreport/index.html

The EUROTRAC-2 Subproject GENEMIS, as well as the EU project IMPRESAREO (links provided in the Additional Documents/web links section below) are useful references for guidance on urban emission inventory work. The IMPRESAREO project looked especially on using earth observations as a data source for improving urban emissions inventories.

At EU level the most important methodology to build an Emission Inventory is the CORINAIR methodology. Council Decision 85/338/EEC (OJ, 1985) established a work programme concerning an "experimental project for gathering, co-ordinating and ensuring the consistency of information on the state of the environment and natural resources in the Community". The work programme was given the name CORINE - CO-oRdination d'INformation Environnementale and included a project to gather and organise information on emissions into the air relevant to acid deposition - CORINAIR. This project started in 1986 with the objective of compiling a co-ordinated inventory of atmospheric emissions from the 12 Member States of the Community in 1985 (CORINAIR 1985).

CORINAIR uses a source sector nomenclature:

· NAPSEA, Nomenclature for Air Pollution Socio-Economic Activity and

· SNAP, Selected Nomenclature for Air Pollution - for emission source sectors, sub-sectors and activities.

To calculate emissions from road transport, the COPERT III (Computer programme to calculate emissions from road transport) has been implemented. The development of COPERT III was financed by the European Environment Agency, in the framework of the activities of the European Topic Centre on Air Emissions. It has been proposed to EEA member countries for the compilation of CORINAIR emission inventories.

Links are provided below.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· To help urban environmental policy effectiveness, urban emission inventories should at least include emissions from traffic, domestic housing and large industrial plants that can affect urban air quality.

· Although top-down inventories can provide a starting point for air quality management work in cities, effective AQM can only be done on the basis of detailed bottom-up inventories with as high spatial and temporal resolution as possible.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Emissions inventory evolution in Bristol

Estimation of emissions from road traffic in Venice Urban Area

Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models in HEAVEN integrated AQMS system in Rome

Lombardy Region Atmospheric Emission Inventory (INEMAR), NW Italy: http://www.ambiente.regione.lombardia.it/servlet/page?_pageid=58&_dad=port_inemar&_schema=PORT_INEMAR

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Within UNECE’s EMEP programme a Task Force on Emission Inventories is maintaining the Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook (Ref 5): http://www.aeat.co.k/netcen/airqual/TFEI/unece.htm

· EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook (3^rd edition): http://reports.eea.eu.int/technical_report_2001_3/en

· EMEP Emission Inventory Data Base: http://webdab.emep.int/

· EPER (European Pollutant Emission Register): http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/eper/

· European Topic Centre on Air Emissions supports member states in making tools available for determining, collecting and reporting air emission data: http:/www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/TFEI/unece.htm

· Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has produced guidelines for the establishment of emission inventories of greenhouse gases within its National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Programme (NGGIP): http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/

· The EUROTRAC Subproject GENEMIS on "Generation and evaluation of emissions data": http://www.ier.uni-stuttgart.de/public/de/organisation/abt/tfu/projekte/genemis/

· Urban emission inventories (see the EU Project IMPRESAREO): Improving the Spatial Resolution of Air Emissions Inventories Using Earth Observation Data: http://www.aeat.co.uk/IMPRESAREO/

· US EPA Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards maintains a comprehensive web site where all material on available emission factors and emission estimation methods in the USA can be viewed and, in many cases, downloaded: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/

· Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors Ap-42. Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/Ap42.htm

· Volume II: Mobile Sources (AP-42), pending 5^th Edition (last updated 06 April 1998): http://www.epa.gov/oms/ap42.htm

· Factor Information Retrieval (FIRE) Data System: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/fire.html

· TANKS 4.07 fro Windows ®: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/tanks.html

· The National atmospheric emissions Inventory of the United Kingdom calculated general emission factors: http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airual/emissions

· The Australian emission estimation technique manuals: http://environment.gov.au/epg/npi/eet_manuals.html

· The OECD maintains a comprehensive web site where material related to emission inventories can be viewed and documents can be downloaded: http://www.oecd.org/env/

· The OECD Database on Use and Release of Industrial Chemicals’ comprises three modules which contain the following information sources: emission scenario documents, sources of Information on Uses and Releases of Specific Chemicals and sources of Information on Uses and Releases of Chemicals on Specific Use/Industry Categories: http://appli1.oecd.org/ehs/urchem.nst/

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

A basic requirement of the Framework Directive (96/62/EC) is for the Member States (MS) to report, annually, the zones and agglomerations where the concentrations of any regulated compound is exceeding the Limit Value (LV) plus the Margin of Tolerance (MOT)^*. In those zones the Member States must prepare (an) Action plan(s)^** to show how they will reach the LV by the attainment year.

To be able to develop such action plans, it is necessary to have knowledge of how the driving forces (population, transport needs and industry production and their technologies,…) that cause air pollution emissions will most probably be developing in the future. We refer to this development into the future, as a “scenario”.

To develop an action plan involves developing alternative future scenarios, and introducing these into some modelling tool, which will translate the driving forces/emissions scenarios into projections for how the air quality will develop into the future.

For definition of LV and MOT, see e.g. the topic Terms in the EC Air Quality Directives: What do they mean?.

See also the topic How to develop an Air Quality Action Plan ?.

3. Discussion

Definitions:

· Base year: Development of a scenario always requires that a base year is set, from which the further development is calculated or estimated. The base year is usually the most recent year where the needed status data and information is “complete”. In relation to the Air Quality Directives, the base year is the year for which the last assessment of air quality is made, for reporting to the Commission.

· Baseline scenario: This scenario represents the most probable development in the coming years, considering that the present trends in driving forces will continue, and taking account of plans and actions which are already agreed and in progress.

· Alternative scenarios: These are scenarios which are to be developed as part of the action plan development, where the air quality planner considers various development and abatement options which might be necessary to reach the goal of attainment of the Air Quality Limit Values by the attainment date.

Scenarios may be developed and used with low or high content of details.

Taking account of urban and external trends

The scenarios must contain both the trends in driving forces and emissions which take place inside the urban area the planner is considering, as well as the external trends that affect the air pollution concentrations approaching the urban areas from outside (the “regional” component).

The trends in the regional component must be accessed through data from other programs of assessment of national (contact your national air quality authorities) or European air quality (e.g. the EMEP programme: http://www.emep.int/ ). The trends in the urban component is a combination of abatement actions taking on the national and/or European scale (e.g. vehicle emission regulations, fuel quality regulations, etc., see e.g. http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/emissions.htm ) and local abatement actions (e.g. local transport plans, industrial area development, local policies for domestic heating practices, etc.).

Main issues to consider in scenario development

· Driving forces: development in population, energy consumption, transportation needs, industrial production.

· Technologies: how the technologies (of energy use, transportation means, industry processes, etc.) will develop and be implemented in the local area considered. This will have a direct bearing on the emissions from the activities in the area.

· Area development: how the urban area planning will affect the spatial (re)distribution of emissions (and subsequently the air pollution concentration distribution).

· Specific plans for traffic infrastructure, industrial plants development: are specific plans existing regarding roads/tunnels/ring roads construction in the coming years, as well as specific plans for industries (single plant developments/modifications/moving, industrial complexes/parks.

Tools for specifying the scenarios quantitatively

The scenarios shall be specified quantitatively in such a way that they can be introduced into some kind of modelling tool, usually an air pollution dispersion model of some kind, for the urban area considered. This requires that an emission data base for the area is/has been established, which specifies the present spatial distribution of the air polluting activities and resulting emissions, usually on an annual basis, as well the variation of the emissions with time (e.g. hourly variation over the year).

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· The development of scenarios for future development of air polluting activities and their emissions is a very important part of assessing the future air quality and to show probable compliance with the Air Quality Directives, or as a basis for developing the needed action plans. The scenarios should be quantitatively specified within the activity-and-emissions data base which is necessary to establish for the air quality planning area in question, in order to assess present and future air quality in the context of the EC Air Quality Directives.

· Development of future scenarios is connected to the requirements in the Air Quality Directives to develop Plans and Programmes to make sure that future air quality will be within Limit Values. It is also linked to and a necessary condition for working effectively on the local scale with Environmental Impact Assessment for new infrastructures, industrial plants, etc.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Under the EC Air Quality Directives each Member State is required to assess and report, annually, the air quality in its zones and agglomerations. If the concentrations are found to be above a Limit Value + Margin Of Tolerance (LV+MOT), implying that it is likely that this Limit Value is likely to be exceeded in the future, a prognosis of the future air quality has to be made (see also the topics How to develop an Air Quality Action Plan ? and Terms in the EC Air Quality Directives: What do they mean?. The assessment should include an estimate of the population exposure.

Other topic discussions have dealt with the topics of monitoring, emission inventories, modelling, scenario developments, etc. This topic description will deal with the procedure for actually quantifying the spatially distributed air pollution concentrations in the zone or agglomeration, when the necessary input data are available.

3. Discussion

“Preliminary Assessment (PA)”

This is the term used in the EC air quality Directives for the air quality assessment that is to be done in each Member State as a basis for dividing the territory into zones and agglomerations, which are to be the air quality management areas, in which the MS needs to do annual assessments. Guidance for methods that can be used to carry out this PA is found in the web link section below.

Regular (annual) assessments

Assessment regimes

Please refer to the Topic Terms in the EC Air Quality Directives: What do they mean?, especially its Annex 1 on how the air pollution concentration levels in a zone compared to the Limit Value (LV) (assessed through the PA or some other means) determine the methods to be used in the assessment:

· Concentrations above the LV: high quality measurements, may be supplemented by Supplementary assessment methods;

· Concentrations between Upper and Lower Assessment Thresholds (UAT and LAT): quality measurements are mandatory, but fewer, less intensive measurements may be needed, provided it is supplemented by other information;

· Concentrations below LAT: modelling, indicative monitoring and objective estimation is sufficient.

In the following, we will concentrate on the two first regimes. Regarding the lowest regime (below LAT), methods like those described in the Preliminary Assessment Guidance (see the web link section below) may be used.

Monitoring

The minimum requirements to the monitoring network in zones are given in Annex of the Daughter Directives, as well as specifications of reference methods. The use of other methods require that their equivalence to the reference methods has been proven (see e.g. Guidance for the Demonstration of Equivalency of Ambient Air Monitoring Methods" (pdf 950Kb), as well as the topic descriptions on how to monitor various pollutants).

The monitoring network shall include stations that represent both hot spot exposure as well as the more typical exposure situation in the zone/agglomeration (see the AQ Directives’ annexes).

Supplementary assessment

Monitoring alone will normally not be sufficient to satisfy the requirements in the Directives that the population exposure should be assessed. The needs for quantification of the spatial distribution of air pollution concentrations cannot be satisfied by monitoring only. Also, if the LVs are exceeded, an action plan shall be developed, which requires that the contributions from various sources of emissions be quantified. Normally, monitoring alone is not sufficient to assess these contributions quantitatively.

Supplementary assessment methods include emissions inventorying and air pollution modelling.

Emissions inventorying: This is dealt with in the Topic How to develop urban Emission Inventories?.

Air Pollution modelling: This is dealt with in the topic descriptions related to air pollution modelling, such as “How to use modelling techniques in air quality assessment and projections?” on air pollution modelling in the context of the EC Air Quality Directives, as well as the other topics on modelling. The model to be used should be validated for use in the urban area in question.

Assessments in different types of zones

The zones of the national territory that the Member States have defined are of different types. Typically they are either:

1. Urban areas /agglomerations (so called if having more than 250,000 inhabitants), usually limited by administrative borders, or by topographical features such as valleys, bowls, ridges which define a natural air-shed. They are usually defined as zones, if the PA or other assessment has estimated that the concentrations or a regulated pollutant is higher than the UAT.

2. Larger regions, composed of rural as well as urban areas.

3. Regions/areas affected by specific industrial sources.

Assessments in area types 1 and 3 above will typically follow the process as described below. Assessments in the larger regions of type 2 above can be more complicated as these region areas have sometimes been defined as separate zones because the air pollution levels are mostly low, but smaller areas within the cities in these zones may have levels above the UAT. Most Member States will rely on monitoring to assess the air quality in these zones and still comply with the requirements in the directives, if in addition to monitoring simpler forms of modelling and estimation methods are used to back up the monitoring.

Necessary input data for air pollution modelling

4. GIS digital map for the zone / agglomeration,

5. Activities and emissions inventory, its spatial and temporal distribution (see Topic How to develop urban Emission Inventories?),

6. Population distribution, in km² or better,

7. Meteorological and topographical data,

8. Scenarios for future development (see Topic How to develop scenarios for Air Quality in the future?).

Procedure for the AQ assessments

9. The results of the monitoring can be plotted on the GIS map, its various statistics values (e.g. annual average, percentiles corresponding to the LVs, etc).

10. The results of the modelling results in iso-lines of concentration values (for the same types of statistics as the monitoring data, for instance annual average), which are also plotted on the GIS map.

11. Data assimilation techniques could be used to get the most possible information out of the combined monitoring and modelling results (see e.g. http://www.ecmwf.int/newsevents/training/rcourse_notes/ )

12. Estimation of the distribution of population exposure to concentrations of various levels, by combining the concentration distribution with the population distribution. This can be done using the GIS mapping system.

There are various types of air pollution models available (see e.g. the Model Documentation System of the ETC-ACC http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/MDS/index_html, and the topic descriptions on modelling).

Some models only deal with concentration assessments in a grid system in the area (e.g. 1km² grids), and some models include in addition so-called sub-grid models, which deal with concentrations close to specific sources (hot-spots) such as near streets and roads, and near industrial stacks. The latter models will come closer to an estimate of the real exposure situation, which includes also the higher end of the exposure distribution.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

Assessment of present and future air pollution concentrations in zones defined according to the requirements in the Air Quality Directives can be done by monitoring in a network as specified in the Directives, and in addition by using “supplementary methods” (term used in the Directives) such as emission inventories, air pollution modelling. The detailed requirements to the assessment system are determined by the actual pollutant levels and by the type of zone.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Examples of EC Projects developing tools for the assessment of present and future air quality and population exposure are given in examples ISHTAR Project : building an advanced models suite for urban sustainable planning, HEARTS Project - Modelling Health Effects and Risks of Transport Systems, Integrated Land Use and Transport Planning tools.

Details on the general topic of integrated models suites covering air quality and exposure are given in Topic What role for Integrated Models Suites in Urban Planning?.

Further Examples:

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· The Guidance Report on Preliminary Assessment under the EU air quality Directives: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/ambient.htm, click on Guidance report on Preliminary Assessment under EU Air Quality Directives

· The Guidance Report on Assessment under the EC Air Quality Directives: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/pdf/guidanceunderairquality.pdf

· URBAIR (AQ assessment methodologies)

· Population exposure estimation methods (e.g. FMI EXPOLIS, FP5 ISHTAR and HEARTS Projects, URBAN EXPOSURE Project, URBAN AEROSOL Project, ): see http://www.ishtar-fp5-eu.com/ and www.euro.who.int/transport (HEARTS Project)

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

Air quality forecasting is a natural extension of the knowledge and experience built up from air quality (AQ) assessment and modelling. In its most general form it entails the prediction of air quality on any time scale, from hours to years, and on any spatial scale, from street to global. When considering short-term air quality forecasts, one is limited to forecasts of a maximum of 2 days, with the most common time frame being 12 to 24 hours. Forecasts on this time scale can be local, regional or even global though the most common use of short-term air quality forecasts is on the urban scale. AQ forecasts can be used for several applications:

• As a warning system to reduce the risk of exposure of high-risk categories, e.g. asthma patients.
• As input to planning short-term abatement strategies e.g. redirection of traffic, reduction of high traffic speeds, limitations on emissions etc.
• As public information to encourage a self-regulating abatement system, e.g. recommendations for citizens to reduce emissions by using public instead of private transport.
• As emergency warning systems for accidental release of pollutants, e.g. nuclear power plant accidents, oil refinery flares etc.

Forecast systems are of essentially 2 different types, statistical forecasts or prognostic (dynamic) forecasts. Combinations of the two are also possible. Statistical forecasts are based on observed relationships between air quality and some meteorological predictors, e.g. wind speed and direction, temperature or stability. Prognostic forecasts, on the other hand, use chemical transport models (CTMs), or other types of mathematical/parameterised (simplified) models, to make prognosis of the concentration of pollutants based on forecasted meteorology.

Short-term forecasts can be made on both regional and local scales. Often, when long range transport of pollutants such as ozone or dust are important, there is a need to predict on both scales, the regional scale forecast being used as input for the local scale forecast. Most forecasting systems, however, do focus on the urban scale. When statistical models are used then the urban region is generally treated as a whole, the forecast being given one value for the entire city. Prognostic models, on the other hand, can give predictions down to street scale. Gridded models can produce air quality forecast maps down to resolutions of around 1 km.

Both statistical and prognostic forecasting systems can be implemented as short-term forecasts on both regional and urban scales. The choice of which system to use is dependent on local conditions, the availability of historic air quality data and the knowledge and experience to run prognostic CTMs.

3. Discussion

Statistical model implementation

Statistical models require a well established relationship between measured air quality and meteorological predictors, which can be used to build up the statistical model. This type of forecasting is most effective when there are clear relationships between local meteorological predictors and air quality. Statistical models are most effective when long range transport is not a factor, i.e. local emissions dominate.

There are several types of statistical models. The simplest forms are persistence and climatology. Persistence is the most relevant and simplest method for short-term forecasts and requires little or no effort. More advance statistical methods, such as criteria selection, decision trees, regression functions and neural networks can also be used. Statistical models do not generally provide concentration values, but pool air quality into indexes, usually 3 or 4 levels of air quality.

The following steps are required for the implementation of statistical forecasts:

Obtain an archive of monitoring data for the desired forecast components. Minimum of 2 years.

• Have access to measured or modelled meteorological data for the corresponding archive period. Models used are generally synoptic scale models, e.g. HIRLAM and ECMWF where the data can be downloaded via web or ftp portals.
• A statistical model can be established using the relationships between air quality and the meteorological model. The relationships should be established between the observations and the meteorological forecast model to be used as this gives the most direct link.
• The model must be tested, validated and improved over at least a 1 year period. Continuous improvements can be carried out, depending on the statistical model used.

Prognostic model implementation

Prognostic models can come in many forms, dependent on the application. Accidental releases are often modelled with parameterized plume models while urban scale forecasts generally use parameterised line source and/or gridded Eulerian models, coupled with meteorology to produce forecasts of air quality.

Prognostic models give a spatial and time dependent distribution of pollutants and require predictions for emissions, as well as meteorology, to determine concentrations through a prognostic CTM. They do not require large amounts of observational data and can be used, but not validated, where no observational data is available. In principle the same guidelines laid out for air pollution modelling (see the topic descriptions on modelling) can also be applied in regard to prognostic forecasting.

The following steps are required for the implementation of prognostic forecasts:

• Access to and expertise in meteorological forecast models. This includes synoptic scale models, e.g. HIRLAM and ECMWF (see links in the web section below) where the data can be downloaded via web or ftp portals, and meso-scale models, e.g. MM5 and RAMS, which would usually require in-house capabilities to run. The meteorological side of air quality forecasting is often undertaken by the regional meteorological authorities.
• Access to and expertise in CTMs
• An extensive emissions database is required
• The model must be tested, validated and if required improved over at least a 1 year period.
• If important aspects of air quality are regional, e.g. ozone, then input from a regional CTM may be required

Abatement strategies

Abatement strategies used in conjunction with short-term forecasts are often related to traffic, if this is the major cause of poor air quality. These include for instance redirection of traffic, reducing speed limits at high-speed roads, and limiting the number of cars on the road. The general concept is that forecasts are required at least 1 day in advance in order to organize and inform the public of any changes. Experience with testing the effectiveness of such strategies, or even implementing them, is very limited. Such measures have an associated economic cost and so trust in the forecast system and a clear understanding of the benefits is also required. A specific topic description is dedicated to the possible short term measures: “Short Term Planning and Actions”.

Short-term measures can also be applied to industrial sources, when these contribute significantly to the air pollution concentrations. These may include reducing or shutting down production facilities. Such measures often have a more demonstrable effect.

Forecast quality

There are currently no official guidelines available for measuring the quality of air pollution forecasts. However several scoring systems such as skill measurement, which judges the predictive ability of the forecast in reference to persistence, and indicators such as the number of ‘false alarms’ can be used. It is clearly important from a public trust point of view that forecasts are perceived to be accurate. If this is the case then the implementation of abatement strategies is more likely to succeed.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Though statistical models are simpler to implement and can often function well once tuned to specific sites, conditions and emissions, they cannot be extended beyond their already defined scope. So, a statistical model cannot be used at another site, under a different climate or address changes in emissions. As such they are limited in their application, e.g. they cannot be used for scenario calculations.

· In contrast, prognostic models that contain the physical description of the processes can be used at any location or for any emission scenario. Their disadvantage is their need for accurate input in the form of meteorology and emissions. They also require more effort and expertise to implement but their use as a forecast tool is recommended above statistical models if the models and expertise are available for implementation locally. It is important to note that such models can also be directly applied to other aspects of air quality assessment.

· An important aspect of air quality forecasts is their perceived and actual reliability. The use of short-term abatement strategies, which often have associated economic or personal disadvantages, to improve air quality should only be applied once the trust in the forecast system is high. The use of forecast systems as warnings for public health is less sensitive and more wide-spread.

· Short term air quality forecasting implies the prediction of short term emission sources behaviour and the use of appropriate air quality models. Details on such groups of models are given in the “modelling” sections of the INTEGAIRE Best Practice database.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Short term air quality forecasting in Bristol

Short term AQ forecast methods in Seville

PM10 AND O3 Forecast bulletins for the Veneto Region (I)

Short term air quality forecasting in Oslo

A proposal for a short term AP forecasting system for individual planning of urban travel routes

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Guidelines for Developing an Air Quality (Ozone and PM_2.5) Forecasting Program, from EPA in U.S.A. (English) http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aq_forecasting_guidance-1016.pdf

· French based European regional forecast using the Prev’air system (French): http://prevair.ineris.fr/

· Better City Air. Air quality forecasts for Norwegian cities (Norwegian): http://www.luftkvalitet.info/

· The Australian Air Quality Forecasting System (English): http://www.dar.csiro.au/information/aaqfs.html

· Danish based multi-scale air quality forecast system Thor (English/Danish): http://www2.dmu.dk/1_viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_luft/4_Spredningsmodeller/5_thor/default_en.asp

· European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (http://www.ecmwf.int/) provides 3-6 day meteorological forecasts for Europe. These can be ordered for an area at this link: http://cobranett.no-ip.info/meteo/ecmwfk1.htm

· The HIRLAM synoptic scale model for regional weather forecast: http://met.no/english/r_and_d_activities/method/num_mod/hirlam.html

Last Updated

25th January 2005

1. Topic

2. Introduction

For today's environmental authorities/managers there is a strong need for operative systems that enables to efficiently perform their main task: to secure, through planning and abatement decisions, a continued acceptable or improved air quality, or development towards compliance with directives, standards or guidelines.

There is a range of needs that state-of-the-science UAQM systems should satisfy. Urban environmental authorities and managers of institutions with the operative responsibility for air quality management, to assess, control and improve air quality, need systems that can satisfy the following:

· Near-real-time access to monitoring data, and direct presentation of this to the public in an understandable format (now using internet or other telecommunications modes);

· Short-term forecasting of air quality ("tomorrow's air"), and similarly presentation of this to the public. Also as a basis for activating short-term abatement actions;

· Assessment of present air quality (in a statistical sense, e.g. last year's air quality, its variation in time and space, exceedances of limit values, etc.), as needed for instance for reporting to higher authorities (e.g. the European Commission). Spatial and temporal resolution according to the nature of the problems;

· Planning needs: Prognosis (forecasting) of future air quality, for various scenarios of development and abatement;

· Development of cost-effective abatement strategies, where costs of abatement are compared with avoided damage costs (benefits). Possibilities for developing optimized abatement strategies;

· Visualization tools to support the needs for presentation of results from the system, for the system users as well as for the public, and in various media.

There are at present a number of viable UAQM systems available to users in cities, either as self-sufficient systems for use by the cities themselves, or to be used by the research groups developing them on a contract basis in response to specific needs by cities. Many of them can be run on PC servers. The scientific quality and operational functionality of the systems is high in general, and has already significantly improved the ratio between the extent of customised results and the resources used. However, the technological development related to software and telecommunications gives the possibility for continuously enhancing this ratio between effective results and resource input.

3. Discussion

Structure of UAQM systems

The key feature of a modern environmental information and management system is the integrated approach that enables the user in an efficient way not only to access data quickly, but also to use the data directly in the assessment and in the planning of actions. The demands to the integrating features of the systems, to enable monitoring, forecasting and warning, and future strategy planning, as well as visualization and presentations, will be increasing in the future. The typical structure of UAQMs responds to this demand for integration.

Taking THE USER as the starting point, the one who is delivering the terms/premises for the development and functionalities of the UAQM systems, Figure 1 visualises how all the various typical elements (modules) of an air quality analysis (emissions, monitoring data, models etc.) serves him/her as they are linked together in software systems, the main purpose of which is to support the needs for making decisions, be it in the short term or long term.

Fig. 1. A structure of principle of a modern environmental information and management system.

There is a large number of elements and types of data and models that are to be integrated in a functional AQM system. Figure 2 indicates the typical elements of data and models, and how they need to be linked through an interface which includes a GIS tool, and also a report generator and visualisation modules (called "data wizard" in the figure), to provide the needed outputs. The data wizard module of course will have many general elements, but is also a place where the AQM system can be custom made to the user, to fulfil his/her special needs.

Fig. 2. Typical data and system elements and modules to be integrated in an AQM system.

Figure 3 shows the typical structure of AQM systems in a more functional way. The various modules are linked (integrated) in loop structure. The "emissions" module is often taken as the starting point of an air quality analysis. However, the "monitoring" may be an equally valid starting point, to first assess present air quality before entering into its analysis. The point is that in the integrated loop type structure, the system can be entered from different angles.

There are (at least) two main sections of the loop:

· the air quality assessment section (blue boxes), where the air quality in an area (e.g. a city) is assessed either by monitoring, by modeling, or a combination. Most UAQM systems include these modules, and results to be visualized may include e.g. present concentrations (on-line or statistically, measured data in points or iso-lines of modeled concentrations), forecasts, baseline prognosis.

· the air quality abatement section (green boxes), where damage and its costs, and abatement options and their costs are assessed and compared /optimized. So far few UAQM systems include much of this section in an integrated way, although present–day systems are suitable for making the same kind of analysis "off-line", i.e. the AQ assessment part is activated and run for various abatement strategies, and results compared and "optimized" into control packages/strategies, external to the system.

Fig. 3. Functional structure of modules in an integrated AQM system

Available UAQM software systems

The following list of European UAQM systems have been developed by groups participating in the EUROTRAC-2 SATURN project ("Studying atmospheric pollution in urban areas"):

· ADMS-Urban: ADMS-Urban Air Quality management system (Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants).

· AirQUIS: Air Quality Information and Management System (Norwegian Institute for Air Research).

· GAMES/AQUAS: Comprehensive Modelling and Decision Support Systems for Photochemical Pollution Control in Metropolitan Areas (Univ. of Breccias, The Electronic for Automation Department Group).

· “IUAQMS”: Integrated Urban AQM System (Univ. of Aveiro, Department Of Environment and Planning)

· IUEMIS: Integrated Urban Environmental and Information Systems (Aristotle University of Thessalonica, LHTEE Group)

· OPANA: Operational Atmospheric Numerical Pollution Model for urban and Regional Areas (Technical Univ. of Madrid, Environmental Software and Modelling Group).

· Photosmog: Photosmog pollution Episode Warning System (UFZ-Centre for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle Ltd, Department of Human Exposure Research and Epidemiology)

· UDM: Urban Dispersion and Exposure Modelling System (Finnish Meteorological Institute)

· URBIS: Urban Information and Management System (TNO)

These systems can be classified as follows:

· Research-tool systems: GAMES/AQUAS, Photosmog, UDM.

· Partly self-sustained systems: IUAQMS, IUEMIS, OPANA, URBIS.

· Self-sustained systems: ADMS-Urban, AirQUIS.

The systems have been applied in various cities in Europe and elsewhere.

More information on the details of the systems, and their applications in various cities, is found in the link to the SATURN Final report in the Further reading section below.

Other available European self-sustained systems on the market are:

· AirViro Developed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

· ENVIMAN Developed by OPSIS company, Sweden.

· HEAVEN Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models - HEAVEN integrated AQMS system at STA – Rome.

A world-wide inventory of UAQM systems has not been conducted in this Integaire context. The web pages below can also be explored for models and systems information and possible assistance.More information on the details of the systems, and their applications in various cities, is found in the link to the SATURN Final report in the Further reading section below.

Other available European self-sustained systems on the market are:

· AirViro Developed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

· ENVIMAN Developed by OPSIS company, Sweden.

· HEAVEN Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models - HEAVEN integrated AQMS system
at STA – Rome.

A world-wide inventory of UAQM systems has not been conducted in this Integaire context. The web pages below can also be explored for models and systems information and possible assistance.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

· Integrated Urban AQM systems to display data on-line, to perform assessments, with time and spatial resolution, of present and future air pollution distribution and the specific source contributions to it, and thus to provide basis for effective abatement strategies, make them directly useful for urban authorities and other users. The use of the systems by outside users does require an amount of training. Different systems have different capabilities, so an evaluation of user needs is necessary when acquiring of a system is contemplated. As mentioned earlier, other systems than those described here are available.

· The development of AQM systems will continue. Models will improve, systems will be extended to more compounds (e.g. various PM size fractions), operability and user-friendliness will improve. This development will be driven partly by the further demands to AQ management from national and European authorities, but also by the science itself, and its impetus towards improving the usefulness of its products.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Example The use of the AQM system INDIC Airviro in Birmingham – West Midlands

Example The use of the AQM system AirQUIS in Oslo

Example Traffic, Emissions and AQ Models in HEAVEN integrated AQMS system in Rome

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· SATURN project Final report, Ch 9: Integrated urban Air Quality Assessment: http://aix.meng.auth.gr/saturn/finalreport/n-ch9.pdf

· The AirQUIS system: http://www.airquis.com/

· DYNEMO - DYMOS SYSTEM (Fraunhofer Institute fro Computer Architecture Software Technology (FIRST), System Analysis and Simulation Department (SAS), Berlin). Dynamic Models for Smog Analysis: www.first.fraunhofer.de/applications/proj/dymos_more.html

· EDSS (MCNC, North Carolina Supercomputing Center). Environmental Decision Support System: www.emc.mcnc.org/EDSS/

· Breeze Software (Trinity Consultants Inc.): http://www.breeze-software.com/

· AQRoad (Enviroware S.R.l.): http://www.enviroware.com/

· ARIA Regional (Aria Technologies, Arianet): http://www.aria.fr/; http://aria-net.it/

· AIRPACT: air Indicator Report fro Public Access and Community Tracking (Washington State University): http://www.airpact.wsu.edu/

· Examples of urban AQ management practice: Air Quality management (Eds: J.W.S. Longhurst, D.M. Elsom and H. Power). WIT Press, Ashurst, UK (2000)

Last Updated

25th January 2005

Issue

Related Topic Templates and Examples

Overview of Issue

Last Updated

30th November 1999

1. Topic

2. Introduction

The requirement to produce air quality action plans was introduced in the Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31996L0062&model=guichett).

Article 7(3) of this Directive requires Action Plans to be produced ‘indicating the measures to be taken in the short term where there is a risk of the limit values and/or alert thresholds being exceeded in order to reduce that risk…’ Article 8.3 requires ‘that a plan or programme is prepared or implemented for attaining the limit value with the specific time limit’. Article 8(3) applies in the years before the limit value has to be met, while Article 7(3) can be assumed more relevant from the date on which the limit value has to be met. The plans must include a programme for attaining the limit values within the specific time limit, and these programmes must be implemented. Annex IV of the Directive provides a schedule of information that must be included in action plans.

3. Discussion

Action planning is the most important part of the air quality management process, providing a practical opportunity for improving local air quality in areas where review and assessment shows that national measures will be insufficient to meet one or more of the air quality limit values.

An air quality action plan should include the following:

· Quantification of the source contributions to the predicted exceedances of the limit values: this will allow the action plan measures to be effectively targeted.

· Quantification of the regional versus the locally produced contributions: this will show how much air quality improvements can be expected from local measures.

· Quantification of contributions from neighbourhood areas within a common air shed: this can show possibilities for cooperation between neighbouring jurisdictions.

· Evidence that all available options have been considered on the grounds of cost and feasibility.

· How the local authority will use its powers and also work together with others in pursuit of the relevant air quality objectives.

· Clear timescales within which the authority and other organisations propose to implement the measures contained in the plan.

· Quantification of the expected impacts of the proposed measures, by when they can be expected and, where possible, an indication as to whether these will be sufficient to meet the limit values.

· How the municipal authority intends to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the plan.

How to make an action plan effective

Overview

Once the main sources of the pollution have been identified, the municipal authority should carefully assess the options/measures available to it to improve air quality. Authorities should ensure that the measures to be included in the plan are cost-effective and proportionate, taking into account the contribution of pollution from different sources. They should also make sure that the proposed approach strikes the right balance between the use of regulatory powers and non-regulatory measures (such as travel plans, public information campaigns, 'walk to school' initiatives, etc.).

Municipal authorities should appraise and where possible quantify the wider environmental, economic and social consequences of each option. Municipal authorities should assess the cost effectiveness of each measure. The appraisal of cost-effectiveness should show that the authority has considered the costs of implementing various options before reaching a decision as to whether it is cost-effective to do so.

Organisation

Municipal authorities will generally wish to set up a steering group to take forward the development of an action plan. The members of the steering group should include officers across the different municipal authority departments and may also include officers from different municipal authorities where a regional action plan is being drawn up. The steering group should engage support from other outside bodies, businesses and local community groups where appropriate to take the process forward. This steering group should ensure that the action plan is taken into account in any Local Transport Strategy/ development plan/Local Community Plan/Agenda 21 strategy.

Consultation

Effective consultation/interaction with the general public is also extremely important. Local residents/community groups and businesses need to be involved from the start when the action plan is being drawn up. Local authorities need to explain fully why these measures have to be introduced, and look for innovative ways to engage stakeholders. The action plan will not work unless it has support from the local community.

Jurisdiction aspects

Some of the actions needed to improve air quality may well be outside the local authority’s remit. This is the case where, for example, an industrial process, airport or major highway regulated by another agency is contributing to exceedances of the limit. In these cases municipal authorities should make clear any limitations in their action plans and show the extent to which they rely on actions by others to work towards meeting the objectives. The plan should show how other agencies have been involved in its production, and indicate what the authority will do to make sure they stay involved.

Updating/Reporting locally

Municipal authorities have a duty to keep their action plans up to date. They should periodically re-evaluate the progress made by their action plans and report this to the relevant national body in order that national reporting can be completed. Typically annual progress reports will be prepared listing the measures within the action plan, the timescales by when they are/were due to be implemented and give an update on progress in terms of implementing them.

Reporting to the EU

See the topic What must be reported to the European Commission under the air quality directives?.

Step-wise process for Action Plan development, and tools

The development of an Action Plan can be broken down into a number of steps (see also the Appendix of this topic description).

Step 1: The Assessment of Air Quality

· An inventory of emissions and sources must be produced. This is described in detail under the Topic How to develop urban Emission Inventories?.

· Assessment of ambient concentrations and meteorological conditions must be carried out. This is described in detail under the topic sections Models for Planning: Pollution and Exposure Modelling and Air Quality Monitoring Methods.

· Review limit values from the Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC and any relevant National standards for ambient concentrations for all pollutants identified in step 1A.

· Compare ambient concentrations with air quality standards: identify areas with concentrations above standards and inventory people at risk in those areas (population exposure distribution) to establish which areas both fail to meet standards and also contain people for the relevant periods.

· Setting priorities: prioritise the most important air pollutants and prioritise the most important sources of the priority air pollutants, based upon the relative shares of sources to ambient concentrations (with the help of dispersion models, Step 1B), or less accurately based upon the relative shares of sources to emissions (Step 1A).

Step 2: Set up a Working Group

It is essential that this working group includes representatives from all organisations that are likely to be required to contribute to the implementation of the action plan.

Step 3: Identify Options to Reduce Levels of Priority Pollutants

· Identify what will happen as a result of actions or policies already planned to take place, for example proposed new transport plans, or new city planning policies (see e.g. topics Short Term Planning and Other Planning Activities improving Air Quality).

· For each major source of priority pollutants identified in Step 1, identify technical measures that will lead to a reduction in the pollutant level in the affected areas, their costs, and their emission reduction potential (see e.g. topic What measures should we plan for reducing specific pollutants?).

· For every priority pollutant, rank the measures from Step 2.B on the basis of cost-effectiveness. This can theoretically be carried out to a level of detail demonstrating the cost per unit of reduction for the pollutant. However, in practice this is often very difficult, and categories of pollutant reduction and cost such as ‘low, medium and high’ are often used. Where this approach is taken it is important to quantify the parameters of these categories in terms of cost or pollution reduction or reduction in pollutant concentration.

· Make emission-reduction scenarios for packages of measures (starting with the most cost-effective), and calculate their total costs and emission reduction effects.

Step 4: Evaluate the Options

The packages of measures designed in Step 2 must be evaluated with regard to the following issues:

· Perceptions – The perceptions of interested parties including: the public, politicians, other agencies, industry and commerce.

· Cost effectiveness – as evaluated in Step 2. This should also consider the cost to other parties, for example to other agencies, to the public, to commercial operations etc.

· Air Quality Improvements – An estimation of the level of improvement delivered by the package of measures compared to what is required to meet the relevant limit.

· Non Air Quality Impacts – for example socio-economic impacts, climate change, noise, local transport plans.

· Feasibility

· Resources

· Timescale