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INTRODUCTION
National
Governments have a key role to play in providing direction and assistance to
cities in improving air quality. The UK Government has been examined in this
case and provides an excellent model to demonstrate how effective direction and
support from national government can can
assist at a local level.
The UK
Government has provided very clear direction in respect of air quality
management. This has made the government’s intentions and requirements very
clear to industry, local authorities, the public and
other stakeholders. This direction has been provided through a national policy
framework, legislation and guidance;
DISCUSSION
HOW THE UK GOVERNMENT HAS DIRECTED AQ
MANAGEMENT
PROVISION OF A POLICY FRAMEWORK
The UK Government has produced a broad policy
framework to address air quality issues in the form of ‘The Air Quality
Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland’. This
strategy was first produced in 1997 and links air quality issues to other
strategic issues such as sustainability, transport and health, and places air
quality high on the political agenda.
PROVISION OF LEGISLATION
The UK Government has produced a robust framework
of legislation to direct the National Air Quality Strategy.
The process began in the 1950’s with clean air
legislation to address the problems of industrial smogs.
More recently The Environmental Protection Act 1990 introduced a
regulatory framework for industrial processes. This has lead to significant
reductions in air pollution from these sources.
The Environment Act 1995
introduced the principles of the National Air Quality Strategy. This act
contains the requirements for Local Authorities to carry out assessments of air
quality, and to declare air quality management areas where national air quality
standards are not achieved.
In addition The Air Quality (England)
Regulations 2000 and The Air Quality (Amendment) Regulations
2002 were introduced which specified air quality standards for eight
pollutants, and the timetable for achieving them.
PROVISION OF GUIDANCE
The UK Government also provides a wide variety
of guidance to support air quality management activity. This includes detailed
guidance covering technical issues relating to the review and assessment of air
quality, monitoring and modelling. In addition policy guidance is provided to
assist in the declaration of air quality management areas and development of
action plans. The relevant Central Government Department ‘The Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)’ has published much of this
information. This information is also provided via an internet website at www.airquality.co.uk
and is also supported via telephone help-lines.
In addition the UK Government provides funding
to a charitable organization, ‘The National Society for Clean Air (NSCA)’. This
organization obtains the remainder of its funding from Local Government
sources. This organization is also extremely active in the production of
guidance.
HOW THE UK GOVERNMENT HAS SUPPORTED AQ
MANAGEMENT
As well as providing very clear direction, the UK
Government has provided very significant support for air quality management
since the commitment was made to a National Air Quality Strategy in the
Environment Act 1995. This support has taken many forms;
FINANCIAL SUPPORT
A considerable amount of financial support has been
provided for air quality management by the UK Government. This has included:
- Direct
funding of expert organisations such as the NSCA
- Direct
funding of extensive research programmes
- Additional
funds included in the Central Government ‘Support Grant’ paid to local
authorities by National Government.
- ‘Supplementary
Credit Approval’ for air quality work. Local
authorities in the UK
have their ability to borrow money restricted by Central Government. This
Supplementary Credit Approval allows local authorities to borrow money to
fund air quality projects.
- Funding
has been provided to assist local authorities in carrying out roadside
vehicle emission testing within Air Quality Management Areas.
PROVISION OF TRAINING
In order for local air quality management to be
successful it has been essential for local authorities to rapidly gain
experience in the field of air quality.
DEFRA has provided significant amounts of training to local authority
staff in all aspects of air quality management.
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY MONITORING ACTIVITY
The UK Government has funded national networks of
air pollution monitoring. The UK Government
provides a wide variety of information from these networks on the Internet,
including air quality data going back many years. This is a valuable national
resource that can be used by local authorities, other regulatory bodies,
industry, other interested groups and the public. In many
cases these monitoring stations are managed locally by the relevant local
authority, but funded by Central Government. The networks provided at national level include:
THE AUTOMATIC URBAN NETWORK
As at December 1999, the automatic urban network
consisted of 84 sites across the country. The locations include urban
background locations
where the population is exposed for significant
periods of time, ‘hotspots’ at urban roadsides and also around industrial
sources. Each site monitors some or all of the following pollutants:
• carbon
monoxide;
• ozone;
• sulphur
dioxide;
• nitrogen dioxide; and
• particles (as PM10).
THE AUTOMATIC RURAL NETWORK
The automatic rural network consists of 19
sites, monitoring mainly ozone but also sulphur
dioxide and particles (as PM10) at rural sites across the country.
HYDROCARBON NETWORK
The hydrocarbon network consists of 13 sites, in
urban, suburban and rural locations. It monitors 25 volatile organic compounds
including benzene, 1,3-butadiene and ozone precursors.
SAMPLER BASED NETWORKS
There are seven national sampler
based, non-automatic, networks that measure a wide range of pollutants. These
are:
• nitrogen
dioxide diffusion tube network
• smoke
network
• sulphur
dioxide network
• multi-element
and lead network
• toxic
organic micropollutants (TOMPS)
network
• acid
deposition network
• rural
sulphur dioxide network
DEFRA operates two of these networks in
cooperation with local authorities. It also carries out research based monitoring
campaigns. For example, measuring PM2.5 and particle numbers
at rural and urban locations across the UK.
THE NATIONAL
EMISSIONS INVENTORY
The UK Government has invested considerable
resource in the development of the national atmospheric emissions inventory
(NAEI). This provides a standard reference for all emissions to air in the UK. It includes estimates for a wide range of
pollutants, including:
• greenhouse
gases;
• pollution leading to regional acid deposition and
photochemical pollution;
• persistent
organic pollutants; and
• other
toxic pollutants, such as benzene and
heavy metals.
It is broken down to various industry and other
sectors, and shows emission trends from 1970 to 1997. Some of the pollutants
are mapped on to a 1km x 1km square grid. The NAEI provides valuable data that
is used in local air quality management.
URBAN EMISSION INVENTORIES
The UK Government has co-funded an
EC sponsored emission inventory for London. DEFRA has also carried out urban
emission inventories for the following areas:
• West Midlands
•
Liverpool/Manchester conurbation
•
Southampton/Portsmouth conurbation
• Glasgow
• Bristol/Avonmouth
• Neath/Port Talbot/Swansea conurbation
• West Yorkshire
• Middlesbrough
• Belfast.
These urban emission inventories are
more detailed than the National Emisions Inventory.
They are based on a 1 km x 1 km square grid and take account of point,
background and mobile sources. Information for the inventories comes from a
wide variety of sources. These include:
• Domestic and
industrial fuel suppliers
• Traffic and
transport models
• Local
authorities
• The national
Environment Agency
•
Questionnaires from various industrial sectors
• Assessment of rail, air
and water transport
• Other inventories.
NATIONAL ACTIVITY TO REDUCE EMISSIONS
The UK Government has also supported the process of
air quality management by implementing a range of policies at national level
that are designed to improve air quality.
USE OF FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS
The UK Government has introduced a range of
financial measures designed to improve air quality. These include;
- Fuel
duty ‘escalator’. The taxation applied to fuel is automatically increased
annually in the national budget
- Revenue
from increases in fuel duty is used to improve public transport and
modernise the road network
- Differences
in levels of fuel duty are used to encourage cleaner fuel use
- A
Reduction in the annual vehicle tax of 1500 Euros is available for buses
and lorries meeting tightest particle emission standards
- The
amount of income tax paid by employees as a result of having a car
provided by their employer is linked to the level of pollution produced by
the car chosen
- Tax
reductions are available to help employers to set up transport schemes for
employees
INTEGRATED PRODUCT POLICY
Homes in the UK
consume 25% of national electricity production. As a consequence national
government has set minimum performance standards for home electrical
appliances. In addition products are required to carry labels detailing their
energy use.
IMPROVING THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF THE
GOVERNMENT
As part of its National Air Quality Strategy The UK Government has committed to improving the
environmental performance of all government departments. This includes;
- Reducing
vehicle use
- Using
lower emission vehicles
- Reducing
energy use by buildings
RAISING AWARENESS
The government has funded a public awareness
campaign using television advertising, media promotions and regional
exhibitions with the theme ‘Cleaner air: are you doing your bit?’. The aims of this campaign are to;
- Encourage
people to avoid making short car journeys
- Encourage
cycling and walking
- Encourage
motorists to drive sensibly
- Encourage
motorists to maintain vehicles properly
- Promote
car sharing
This major campaign clearly assists local
authorities in gaining public support for their air quality management
initiatives.
REFERENCES
‘The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland’. DEFRA 2000.
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/strategy/index.htm
The Environmental Protection Act 1990.
www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900043_en_1.htm
The
Environment Act 19955/Ukpga_19950025_en_1.htm
www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/Ukpga_19950025_en_1.htm
The Air
Quality (England) Regulations
2000
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/airqual/pdf/airqual.pdf
The Air Quality (Amendment) Regulations 2002
http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si2002/20023043.htm
Air Quality Action Plans: Interim Guidance for Local Authorities,
NSCA. www.nsca.org.uk
Air Quality: Planning for Action, NSCA.
www.nsca.org.uk
Air Quality Management Areas: Turning Reviews Into Action, NSCA. www.nsca.org.uk
RECOMMENDATION/CONCLUSION
The UK model demonstrates the wide variety of mechanisms
that national government can employ to assist in air quality management at a
local level. This co-ordinated approach has resulted in air quality management
being at quite an advanced stage in the UK. However, much of the material produced in the UK is readily transferable to other countries and may
be of use. |