1. Topic

2. Introduction

The introduction of new technologies, “cleaner and leaner”, can enhance transport environmental sustainability. More specifically, speaking of reduction in energy consumption, reduction in emissions and reduction in noise and vibrations, among the “environmental friendly” technologies there are advanced propulsion systems like electric and hybrid electric drive-train. Due to low specific energy, “pure electric” vehicles are used only for “ niche applications”, but hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) look like a promising solution because they couple some advantages of the traditional technology (e.g. good autonomy of operation) ensured by a chemical energy storage (a fuel) with low emissions although, usually, they are not strictly ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicles). Today’s hybrid market represents relatively low volumes, but car manufacturers like GM and Toyota are well placed to meet market as soon as demand develops, demands that could exceed one million units each year.

3. Discussion

So far, vehicles with battery systems and hybrid drive systems (e.g. Toyota, Fiat and Honda) are offered to a wide range of buyers, and both systems are available in numerous technical varieties with differing characteristics. In inner city traffic, electric vehicles with battery systems and hybrid systems can contribute considerably to improving the air quality.

Since only 10,855 electric vehicles of a total of 150 million vehicles were registered in the European Union in 1997, there is a considerable potential for growth. A programme of measures by the municipalities can considerably increase acceptance of electric vehicles by the population.

Electric Vehicles (BEV, Battery Electric Vehicles)

Electric vehicles are clean and quiet (zero emission vehicles) and can thus make an important contribution to reducing emissions in the cities. However, this is only true directly at their place of operation. If the necessary electricity/energy is produced conventionally, considerable amounts of trace materials continue to be emitted. Only if the energy is produced via regenerative processes, can they be considered true “zero emission vehicles”.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

Electric vehicles with a battery system have a range of 80 to 100 km. This means that they are of unrestricted use in inner city traffic where mostly distances of up to 40 km are covered. For larger distances above 100 km these vehicles are no alternative to conventional vehicles with combustion engines. Vehicles with hybrid drive systems, fitted with combustion engine and electric engine, combine the emission-free electric engine with the advantages of the combustion engine and are therefore a full alternative to conventional vehicles.

Moreover, the electrical storage unit, combined with a motor-generator (and a traction motor, obviously) can reduce fuel consumption by:

• Recovering braking energy;
• Reducing engine (ICE) torque and speed transient;
• Downsizing the generator for achieving the operating point of maximum efficiency of the ICE or for reducing total costs when generator specific cost is very high like with fuel cell.

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles & Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FCEV & FCHEV)

Fuel cell systems producing electricity by means of hydrogen are also free of emissions or low in emissions. They are at present in the large-scale testing phase and will over the medium term be able to contribute to reducing emissions from vehicle traffic.

4. Recommendation / Conclusion

A diverse range of measures can be employed by municipal authorities to encourage the use of electric vehicles. These measures can be seen to complement and enhance the measures taken by national governments. The use of these types of vehicles can have a positive impact on virtually all the urban air pollutants: CO, VOC, NOx, PM.

5. Examples / Further Reading

Examples of Actions Taken by Cities

Changing the municipal fleet of cars and public transports to electric vehicles.

This would create a market, enabling large-scale series production and lowering prices. This market would then become interesting for those car manufacturers who so far do not produce standard-type models. This in turn would increase the variety of models and acceptance by the buyers.

• The old Historic Centre of Seville, is the first in the world which uses vehicles with electric propulsion in all its extension to collect urban waste. The introduction of new environmental criteria has made animpulse innovation solutions to improve the quality of the services supplied to citizens. For that reason, the local city council through its cleaning service Company, LIPASAM, joined its fleet in 1998 with the first five compacters vehicles for the collection of urban waste in the Historic centre of the city of Seville. These collection vehicles with bimodal technology were the first experience at a national level, and the dimension of these vehicles, more reduced than the classic compacters, make them suitable for the collection in the historic centre of the city. The experience acquired has made the Environmental Delegation in the city of Seville to buy other five to consolidate the Bimodal technology. The acquisition of these new bimodal vehicles has supposed an investment of over 1.5 million of euros. The special characteristics of the initiative and its environmental improvement have had the support of the EU Cohesion Funds (80 %), being the rest of the investment made by the Local Council of Seville.
• During the years 1998-2000 the city of Malmö and one of Sweden’s biggest energy company, Sydkraft, carried out a demonstration project with electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. The project was supported by the Swedish government with the aims to show that these vehicles are realistic alternatives, to encourage their use, to study vehicle technique, charging and driving and, finally, the impact on environment and consequences for traffic. A total of 100 light vehicles participated. Two heavy electric refuse collection vehicles formed a subproject. The total mileage was 960 000 km. The daily average for a vehicle was 20-25 km (a third of possible action range). According to the users, the advantages were less pollution with no local emissions, no noise, easy to drive and park, much cheaper to drive than internal combustion cars and free parking. The disadvantages were short action range per charge, expensive to buy, long charging time and limited speed. The Swedish Road Administration has a model to calculate (Vägverkets publikation 1997:130) the economic effects (caused by pollution) for society. The use of the two electric refuse collection vehicles saved 600 000 SEK/year (€ 65 000) due to lower emissions. http://www.kfb.se/publ/main.htm

Provide financial incentive / overcome financial obstacles, by sponsoring the purchase of zero/low emission vehicles.

• The municipality of Florence implemented a scheme providing a 1 000 000 Lire subsidy to citizens or companies purchasing electric vehicles from certain suppliers.

Provide non-financial incentives

• Providing special car parks with power supply for electric vehicles (electricity stations) in favourable locations in the city centres would be another incentive to buy, in view of the prevailing shortage of parking spaces. Special areas of prohibited parking for vehicles with combustion engines would have a similar effect.

Assist in rapidly developing the refuelling infrastructure. As an example, the City of Turku was a partner in EVD-POST project, which was supported under Thermie (TR140/97). The project aimed at enhancing the usage of electric vehicles in Europe. A special aspect of the project in Turku was to set up of a public-private partnership (PPP) to offer a network of public charging stations in and around the city. In these charging stations electricity and parking is free for two hours. By proving to be an owner of an EV one is able to get a key to the charging station from the Environmental Protection Office of City of Turku.

Other examples:

• Electric vehicles in Bristol
• How can electric and hybrid vehicles contribute to clean air?
• Electric and Hybrid Vehicles in Sevilla
• Electric Cars in Turku

6. Additional Documents / Web Links

· Further information is given in the programme JOULE II of the European Commission: 'Collaboration between CEC and National Programmes on Electric Vehicles in Europe (1)’: http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/rtdinf19/19d06.html, 28.11.02. It deals with all the aspects of the development and production of electronic engines and their uses.

· The following projects, completed or “on going” in the framework of the Fifth Framework Programme deal with electric propulsion systems:

Fuel Cell related Projects:

· PROFUEL, On-board gasoline processor for fuel cell vehicle application

· BIO-H2, Production of clean hydrogen for fuel cells by reformation of bioethanol

· FUERO, Fuel cell systems and components general research for vehicle applications

· CPS2FCS, Critical Paths to Fuel Cells.

· IM-SOFC-GT, Integrated modelling study of fuel cell/gas turbine hybrids.

· AMFC, Advanced Methanol fuel cells for vehicle propulsion.

· DREAMCAR, Direct methanol fuel cell system for car applications.

· PMFP, Plasma & membrane supported catalytic gasoline fuel processor using hydrogen selective membranes.

· ECTOS, Ecological City Transport System: Demonstration, Evaluation and Research Project of Hydrogen fuel cell bus transportation system of the future.

· Development of enhanced electrocatalysts for mobile fuel cell systems.

· CUTE, Clean Urban Transport for Europe.

· ELEDRIVE, Thematic network on fuel cells and their applications for electric & hybrid vehicles.

· FRESCO, European Development Of A Fuel-Cell, Reduced-Emission Scooter.

· APOLLON, Advanced Pem Fuel Cells.

· FEBUSS, Fuel Cell Energy Systems Standardised for Large Transport, BUSses and Stationary Applications.

· ACCEPT, Ammonia Cracking for Clean Electric Power Technology.

· MINIREF, Miniaturised Gasoline Fuel Processor for Fuel Cell Vehicle Applications.

· SOFCNET, Thematic network on solid oxide fuel cell technology.

· BIOFEAT, Biodiesel fuel processor for a fuel cell auxiliary power unit for a vehicle.

· DIRECT, Diesel reforming by catalytic technologies.

· FUEVA, European fuel cell vehicles technologies validation phase II.

· FCSHIP, Fuel cell technology in ships.

· POWERSIM, Powertrain and vehicle simulation.

Hybrid related projects:

· ELMAS, New high efficiency electric machines solutions for mild hybrid applications

· Hybrid Bus Powered by Fuel Cell and Flywheel

· SUVA, Surplus value hybrid

· Fuel-cell - Flywheel hybrid vehicle

· Small hybrid city-car operated with biofuels or LPG

· ULEV-TAP II, Ultra low emission vehicle - transport advanced propulsion II

· Hybrid Electric Vehicles Power Systems at University College Cork Ireland

Battery related projects:

· STAR-BMS, Evaluation of standard test procedures for battery management components

· ASTOR, Assessment and testing of advanced energy storage systems for propulsion and other electrical systems in passenger cars

· BILAPS, Development of a lead acid power source for hybrid electric vehicles

· LION HEART, Lithium-ion battery hybrid electric application research and technology

· CHEETAH, A High Power Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery for a Hybrid Electric Vehicle

· PROBATT, Advanced processes and technologies for cost effective highly efficient batteries for fuel saving cars

· PAMLIB, New materials for Li-Ion batteries with reduced cost and improved safety

· BILAPS, Development of a lead acid power source for hybrid electric vehicles

· SUPERCAR, Improved energy supply for the integrated starter generator with double-layer capacitor and energy battery for cars with 42 V - target action K

· LIBERAL, Lithium battery evaluation and research - accelerated life test direction

Last Updated

25th January 2005